tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-87132903112118123862024-03-13T00:29:16.811-07:00Can These Bones LiveRuminations on society, literature, and lifeCarl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.comBlogger250125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-33956301336950624092023-10-09T09:09:00.000-07:002023-10-09T09:09:51.495-07:00Returns<p> </p><p><br /></p><div class="WordSection1">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjw9qb0cRGDPD11nJzx0Qz03cIGJ9thceZVusrFlNLzR2jEiAxLi5n8g18CuUnzuFwULPuymOayoRVV41JbTRi9JkrGEbSBYEAFI-d6xPouki7OfGujHFaIAOC2pphcQZQL7L4x6lrY_aUKS8cullaB7oRFGicYhWZjgS4M01yFlLqhs7M9IggjGHlL05GU" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjw9qb0cRGDPD11nJzx0Qz03cIGJ9thceZVusrFlNLzR2jEiAxLi5n8g18CuUnzuFwULPuymOayoRVV41JbTRi9JkrGEbSBYEAFI-d6xPouki7OfGujHFaIAOC2pphcQZQL7L4x6lrY_aUKS8cullaB7oRFGicYhWZjgS4M01yFlLqhs7M9IggjGHlL05GU" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 2.0in; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> <i>Returns</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I opened the door to the blacksmith
shop with care<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">since the hinges, pock-marked and
encrusted<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">with rust, were almost more than
the frame could bear.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">There was no floor. I walked on
dust instead.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Tools turning to dust were everywhere<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">scattered through my
great-grandfather's shed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Horseshoes, the pincers that held
them in the fire,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">then laid them on the anvil,
glowing red,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">had now cooled together a hundred
years.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">A hammer rested on its cylindrical
head,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">long wooden handle projecting in
the air,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">waiting, still propped against the
anvil's side,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">to be lifted by the hand that
dropped it there,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">the hand that worked the bellows,
now long decayed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; tab-stops: -1.0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> I pumped it and the ashes
scarcely stirred.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Hearing the rustle of leaves, I turned
my head. </span></p></div><p>
</p><div class="WordSection2">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">At my back, in the half-open door,
the sunlight edged<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">between the darkness here and the
brightness there,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">like the blacksmith's face, peering
from the dead<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .1in; text-indent: 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">at the shadows left behind - his
works, his heir.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-48321518885647505182023-10-01T09:16:00.000-07:002023-10-01T09:16:16.227-07:00Tell the Acrobats<p> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span></span><i>Tell
the Acrobats</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tell the acrobats waiting in the forest
clearing<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to pack their circus wagons and leave
without me,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I've had my fill of emptiness spinning
around me,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>catching jagged bits of voices flying from
the crowd<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>like shards exploding from a hammered
mirror.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Slipping from my partner's sweaty palms, I
flew<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from that. I'm staying where Chance <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dropped me. Here, the cemetery is the real
town;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the living, in suburban exile, fringe the
dead.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At last, that's all the upward mobility I
need.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Give the ladies, the fat one, the bearded
one,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and the one who's a target to be missed by
knives,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the frayed remnants of my well-worn love.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lift up the elephant's ear and whisper that
always<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I'll see myself as I was reflected in her
sad eye.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-14588012128808125382023-09-27T11:07:00.002-07:002023-09-27T11:07:36.471-07:00 The Never‑ending End of the War<p> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-align: justify;"> <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span> </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-align: justify;">The Never‑ending End of the War</i></p><div class="WordSection1">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> My neighbor with a face behind the face like
mine <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> is walking through generations of rice fields.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> The rice is gone, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> the soil dried to a mosaic of crooked grins, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> and under it, layers of sediment, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> and at the heart of everything, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> the dragon father, Lac‑Long‑Quan, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> who left his sons divided <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> into factions of the sea and sky. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> Echoes of old voices still reach here, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> but they're pitched as high as dog‑whistles ‑ <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> they don't vie with the crackle of stalks <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> under plastic slippers. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> Friend, I can't imagine where you might be
going, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> with a tread so light your bones could well be
hollow <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> on a day too still <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> to stir the long white threads of your goatee,
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> but walk carefully; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.7in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> the mines were planted on both sides. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-53220746769667519752023-09-25T06:20:00.002-07:002023-09-25T06:21:18.480-07:00Memory of a Meeting at a Coffeeshop in Saigon<p> </p><div class="WordSection1">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span></span><i>Memory of a Meeting at a
Coffeeshop in Saigon</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The tropical glare squats at the
edge of the shade,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>studying arcs traced by our
coffeecups<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in the rise and fall between crude
wooden tables<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and our lips. Our rhythms are
regular as heartbeats.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Overhead, coconuts are swelling to
self-sacrifice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We're taking a break from history.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All the singers in the boom-box<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>are maidens wailing for soldiers,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>soldiers wailing for maidens;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>there's no telling which war is in
which song;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the same enemy keeps changing uniforms.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jagged bits of your unknown
father's face<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>keep falling out of disoriented
features.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I try to fit them together, <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as I try to assemble the words I
know <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in sentences and reshape them to my
tongue.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When you talk the words dash out
like small birds<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and
your hands swoop after them like birds of prey,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a quickness acquired from years of
street-life,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>selling peanuts and yourself and
cadging petty coins.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What will it be like in the country
of my waking,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the country of your dreams?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When will you wake up there?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Will you wonder, like Chuang-tzu,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>whether the dream was before or
after the waking?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You search my round eyes and long
nose<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>for pieces that will fit your face.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every <b>mei</b> (your name for us
means "beautiful",<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and we are as beautiful and cruel
as desire)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is a father in your eyes. Listen,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>when I smile, it means I have no
face to lose<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or share.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the sweet coffee, the
shopkeeper<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>brings a jar of bitter Chinese tea.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-39796130779762796472023-09-22T12:18:00.001-07:002023-09-22T12:18:27.527-07:00Chance and Necessity<p> </p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhDYTWzs03pDDYOdUVEhvIRf9xJP-98DQWd1yETG5Fx66sqGrLe8NjWtfknEU8jQYTlctCI1lApoFd5IVR3OMRIVi1M_ubMqi087fIZ4U-TzM3yikchE3bnauuwJGRyKfkNPowAXmnTV6vmm98kOzpiME11qyZU0RwO3KA8nQ6KQaCzkuiAy2sPoGDwb_fF" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="316" data-original-width="474" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhDYTWzs03pDDYOdUVEhvIRf9xJP-98DQWd1yETG5Fx66sqGrLe8NjWtfknEU8jQYTlctCI1lApoFd5IVR3OMRIVi1M_ubMqi087fIZ4U-TzM3yikchE3bnauuwJGRyKfkNPowAXmnTV6vmm98kOzpiME11qyZU0RwO3KA8nQ6KQaCzkuiAy2sPoGDwb_fF" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.9in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Chance and Necessity</b></p>
<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">(For B.D.L.)</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">From the liquidity of accidents,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">the undefinable rises to events<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">that surge and crest in a
necessary end<span style="mso-tab-count: 4;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">in definition, where they begin
again.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in; text-indent: 4.0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">The waves reform and roll back to
the sea<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">to lose themselves in that green
mystery<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">in which the forms perform a
constant dance<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">of movements of necessity and
chance.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">The surface stretches away from
where I stand<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">and curves around to another end
of land<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">where, by rule of chance, you
might now be,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">or by law of hidden necessity.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">The figures that dance across the
water’s face<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">before us rise up from an unseen
place<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">beneath the separations, beyond
our sight<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">and leap for just a moment in the
light.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">I think they are the same figures,
both here<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">and there, and that they appear
and disappear<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">to you and me and join us in an
instant<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">that waves away the thoughts of
near and distant.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">Distinct mythologies dissolve in
sea,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">as do the spaces between you and
me,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">so that the chances dividing us
are only<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">undulations of necessity.<o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-58629849355027000472023-09-17T11:34:00.004-07:002023-09-22T12:20:26.189-07:00A Piebald Rock Dove Seen from My Window in Winter<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhD2ddOIZ5psaYLKpJuiouYftrn5bvt1zcgPSTHrogpiO_G30Ruw8Hhnqegy-yJ5VvSU0zds4jVOHMmqb7EBQHz2Gru1XNQUwo8ZZdfFDRg49L6ePl5pX4vlvPkzWmlbYhELI5U1wFafDSNRlTXRDLbWm1vi_o1Fba-isIAPk71Qpwh2pbSscJfJgOrxHed" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="348" data-original-width="474" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhD2ddOIZ5psaYLKpJuiouYftrn5bvt1zcgPSTHrogpiO_G30Ruw8Hhnqegy-yJ5VvSU0zds4jVOHMmqb7EBQHz2Gru1XNQUwo8ZZdfFDRg49L6ePl5pX4vlvPkzWmlbYhELI5U1wFafDSNRlTXRDLbWm1vi_o1Fba-isIAPk71Qpwh2pbSscJfJgOrxHed" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /></div><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A Piebald Rock Dove Seen from My Window in Winter<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">Alone among a flock of doves, all
black,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">this one, mottled, hobbles through
snow spotted<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">the same as he, a model for his
back.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">I mark how dark ground divides the
plot<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">Into contrasts of dichromatic
curves<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">of disillusioned earth and remnant
sky<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">that mundane warming gradually
returns<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">from heavy land beneath to weightless
light.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">This tenuous mix has set this dove
apart,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">he is not so easily classed as all
the rest,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">he is a puzzle of pieces, light
and dark<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">Incongruously entwined across his
breast.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">But when his wings turn cruciform
in flight<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">ascending feathers below flash purest white.<o:p></o:p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-28428910111360742752023-09-11T12:20:00.000-07:002023-09-11T12:20:16.387-07:00How do we measure "diversity?"<p> </p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhnfxGVzYRAl7Q0FYCXhwgAwrHwRo1O4MYskeBOetNoQacf71xgaRL-wmtM1tZ6b2wWv1S5CV2mEIFgB3glv_5Did8VPi090yNFWnSn1OHk1qkVQP9qXE1TYqLTR1f8-3TgzeRK54zaVj_7G5jPwbr3-6GDouA-l77S8nNQ19uWGCrvxaaSrSKwzmnWZZBw" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="746" data-original-width="1024" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhnfxGVzYRAl7Q0FYCXhwgAwrHwRo1O4MYskeBOetNoQacf71xgaRL-wmtM1tZ6b2wWv1S5CV2mEIFgB3glv_5Did8VPi090yNFWnSn1OHk1qkVQP9qXE1TYqLTR1f8-3TgzeRK54zaVj_7G5jPwbr3-6GDouA-l77S8nNQ19uWGCrvxaaSrSKwzmnWZZBw" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">A <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York Times </i>report
on socioeconomic diversity has been widely publicized in academic circles over
the past few days. The report has a bizarre way of measuring diversity, though.
According to the report, the more students receiving Pell Grants, a form of
economic support for low-income students, enrolled in an institution, the more
diverse it is.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A reasonable definition of “diversity,” as it applies to
people, would be have a range of different sorts of individuals. Socioeconomic
diversity would refer to the state of containing people from different
socioeconomic levels, whether we measure those levels by family incomes,
socioeconomic index scores or some other relevant indicators. The more a
setting concentrates people at any level; high, medium, or low; by definition,
the less “diverse” it is.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">But take a look at the ranking in this table:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/09/07/magazine/college-access-index.html">The
Top U.S. Colleges With the Greatest Economic Diversity - The New York Times
(nytimes.com)</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Berea College, with 94% of students receiving Pell Grants,
is presented here as the “most diverse.” At the bottom, Oberlin and Tulane,
with only 8% of students on the grants, are the “least diverse.” One could
dispute the use of Pell Grants as an economic indicator, but, accepting it for
the sake of argument, a school with 94% of students who are low income is
somehow more diverse than schools with 92% of students with the whole range of
incomes above the Pell Grant level. So far, looking at all the news on this
data, I haven’t seen anyone questioning this absurdity.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">I think part of the problem might be that the word “diversity”
has lost any clear meaning as it has become a shibboleth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any institution that includes more people
judged to be disadvantaged in some way is “diverse,” so that the greater the
concentration of disadvantages, the greater the putatively laudable “diversity.”
And since “diversity” is an unquestionable moral good in today’s academic
culture, the success of every institution should be judged by how much
disadvantage it can concentrate.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">I’d suggest that even if every school should aim at serving
the same populations (a dubious proposition), there might be reasons why a
relatively high percentage of affluent students might be desirable. If the
school does not have a big endowment or a steady source of philanthropy
specifically for the needy, then someone has to pay the costs in order to bring
in the 8%, or whatever the portion might be. And that someone has to have the
wherewithal to pay the tuition. <o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-12743190635233924502023-09-10T08:44:00.001-07:002023-09-10T08:44:28.260-07:00No One Home<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj11gMfmBxf2gy2cCxMXkqoNrfKzBVkfP9wkbpbCzc4IbQwOkSg-7xK3a-U6npGHV8vzvv7NFm_7vqq2qo93iN-3Rv99W25RTpoIGf2TjIyxk0PsAmWQKh4vAhvx2aXH5K_XVueCTGbqfIcGQElhfNWOCRpaXdkww49JavnaxG1pLN-enxg0Ztrsdg6WtVz" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="1884" data-original-width="1280" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj11gMfmBxf2gy2cCxMXkqoNrfKzBVkfP9wkbpbCzc4IbQwOkSg-7xK3a-U6npGHV8vzvv7NFm_7vqq2qo93iN-3Rv99W25RTpoIGf2TjIyxk0PsAmWQKh4vAhvx2aXH5K_XVueCTGbqfIcGQElhfNWOCRpaXdkww49JavnaxG1pLN-enxg0Ztrsdg6WtVz" width="163" /></a></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">Every morning I wake to a ringing
phone.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">My own voice calls me from the
other end.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;">I’m sorry, I respond, there’s no
one home.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.7in;"> You’ll have to call again,<o:p></o:p></p><p>
<span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-55138997397141066952023-09-09T10:52:00.000-07:002023-09-09T10:52:25.258-07:00<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgLp_LZ4TKl2IuYWqMhy24z59S5iEycX5MJWLoY6NbUK5z0DW9hYkCK543zNosp9LvcFnn8BCHEjaLn30vtcScHDTHvL5JgmdF0kdqoPBM5JKWeWjNAX1wBFv9sMHDla9axDY5bOMM2FBnnVWV4DYjE2bU-HRAKwnUosLBGp0W8oEVUCqNgaWt64hUhAFet" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="760" data-original-width="1600" height="152" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgLp_LZ4TKl2IuYWqMhy24z59S5iEycX5MJWLoY6NbUK5z0DW9hYkCK543zNosp9LvcFnn8BCHEjaLn30vtcScHDTHvL5JgmdF0kdqoPBM5JKWeWjNAX1wBFv9sMHDla9axDY5bOMM2FBnnVWV4DYjE2bU-HRAKwnUosLBGp0W8oEVUCqNgaWt64hUhAFet" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Naming of Names<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">They woke in a jungle of leaf
overlapped by leaf.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">Eyes unfocused, the saw all things
and none<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">in a wakefulness not yet distinct
from sleep.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">Their uncombed hair twisted in
rays of sun<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">wrapped about their heads in crazy
wreaths<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">of light and dark completely
interwoven.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">Their feet touched earth, the same
dirt covered their feet<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">that covered the earth; they were
a man, a woman,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">still intimate, like plants, with
the soil beneath,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">As quiet as the grass; the two
were dumb,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">wordless when they heard the
rustling leaves.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">The beasts, by wing and foot and
fin, had come.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">The cats twitched tails, the
serpents hung from trees,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">and frogs squatted among the
loosening buds<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">of lotus flowers, all waiting,
patiently.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">The names began to drop off, one
by one,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">One word fell out to pair with
every beast,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">until a parallel world of words
was done.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">With words they knew to tell each
life from each,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">and since the eyes are pupils to
the tongue,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">they began to see as syllables
would teach.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">They saw each line take on new
definition,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">as if cut from its background in
relief.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">For named this was a form of
liberation.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">For namers, though, names were
limitation.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">They knew their world and from
this they knew grief:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.8in;">By names their lives were bounded
and made brief.<o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-74868530164281567522023-08-03T09:56:00.001-07:002023-08-03T09:56:44.717-07:00Logoi and Logos<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiqxTxmW8HBOm4kJUqvF9mzViXmMHAZMgrbYnLFzeIMommDnu4iKLg4n0H2inM__8wRYIkwzVBZPHpRY8q-MgROypgJhXgaPWK1MhjF33xiNpBhvYo3IJu8bO0vXtNmT7CMq8aBszG0qbh2Cnw4fuEhVY61etHJGCD86pYSs8SMGq3L8lncluGaJ52qHMDs" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="878" data-original-width="1098" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiqxTxmW8HBOm4kJUqvF9mzViXmMHAZMgrbYnLFzeIMommDnu4iKLg4n0H2inM__8wRYIkwzVBZPHpRY8q-MgROypgJhXgaPWK1MhjF33xiNpBhvYo3IJu8bO0vXtNmT7CMq8aBszG0qbh2Cnw4fuEhVY61etHJGCD86pYSs8SMGq3L8lncluGaJ52qHMDs" width="300" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">‘<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ΟΙ</span> <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ΛΟΓΓΟΙ</span> <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ΚΑΙ</span> ‘<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ο</span> <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ΛΟΓΟΣ</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">You can call a stone any name you please.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">It still will skip across the water’s surface<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">until it stops and sinks into a place<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">where all names are finally the same.<o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-76262985855644204062023-08-02T07:47:00.002-07:002023-08-02T07:47:26.360-07:00On The (Possible) Impossibility of Time Traven<p> </p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjfda0JDbwQPLWX02rRuAd410k1LuuJbnpR5JprwimMESKMkZMyTxiydevScbfzPkmWsERULSF4_W88frc0f63e8BjjoX3VhHorz0uAvxO5IhE6ZHaKc4nsd0jcdNDDK3oVotzU0H-I96gqRYIye3vlBfXdgfkZTMJjY02S1W7RQXZkaYw8jQC_3U8-tnGr" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="1080" data-original-width="1920" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjfda0JDbwQPLWX02rRuAd410k1LuuJbnpR5JprwimMESKMkZMyTxiydevScbfzPkmWsERULSF4_W88frc0f63e8BjjoX3VhHorz0uAvxO5IhE6ZHaKc4nsd0jcdNDDK3oVotzU0H-I96gqRYIye3vlBfXdgfkZTMJjY02S1W7RQXZkaYw8jQC_3U8-tnGr" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Time travel is a recurring theme in science fiction and an
appealing idea. There seems to be some support for the idea that we could, at
some point, move in time in the same way that we move in space, time being the
fourth dimension after the three spatial dimensions. I sometimes read that we
already travel through time, but in only one direction, forward, and then only
at established paces. The relativity of time to spatial movement, moreover, means
that those established paces can vary. If I am in a speeding space ship and you
are on earth, we will age at different rates and what will be present or future
for one of us can be past for another.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">It seems to me, though, that the idea that we travel forward
in time is an illusion created by memory. My earliest clear recollection, for
example, is of climbing up on a windowsill and falling out into rose bushes
when, according to location and circumstances, I must have been about three
years of age. In passing, I’ll note that most of my distinct memories in life
involve mishaps. You could attribute this to the fact these are the sorts of
things that leave impressions or to the fact that I am an accident-prone klutz.
Both of these are probably true.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">My memory of falling out of the window gives me the
impression that I was on a windowsill at one point and that I have gradually
moved forward to this point, at which I am sitting in front of a computer
hoping that I don’t fall out of my chair. But the “I” at the computer is not
the same “I” that fell into the rose bushes, in the same way that a tree is not
a seed or a sapling. There is no disjunction of identity in either case, but in
both cases what came later emerged from what came earlier and what came later
cannot coexist with what came earlier. A tree cannot also be a seed and a
sapling.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If I were to go back through the decades to when I was three
years old, I would be three years old, not my present advance age observing
myself as a toddler. To go back one hundred years would be to go back to a time
when I did exist, so I would not have existed in the year 1923. I exist in a
time that I did not exist. We don’t just walk through time. We are products of
time. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">I think this has some interesting implications for the
concept of an eternal return. Let us say, for example, that the forward movement
of time is a result of a universe expanding from forces of repulsion in an inconceivably
densely packed unity. Eventually, the forces of repulsion would grow so weak
that the universe would begin to contract and time would run in reverse. But if
it is the same time running in reverse that previously ran forward, then the
same events would be repeated in reverse order. I would be a man of some years
and experience and then a three year old. But because I would be the same developmental
series backward, as well as forward, I would be experiencing time as moving
from past to future, even though someone outside the universe would see it as
running from future to past. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If the universe contracted again to the initial point and
repulsion caused another “big bang,” then the question would be whether the
expansion would follow the exact same trajectory, or would change in some ways.
In the first case, there would be no difference for me between my living
through events once and my living through those same events a million times. In
the second case, whatever would exist would be different from what exists now, including
me, if I could considered as existing at all. Of course, this is all
speculation. But the speculations all suggest the same thing: we are prisoners
of time and there is no excape.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></p><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-24718392811848635432023-07-30T12:35:00.003-07:002023-07-30T12:35:41.558-07:00Apologia mea<p> </p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ΑΠΟΛΟΓΙΑ<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I’m just<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">d<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">a<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">n<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">g<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">l<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">i<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">n<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">g<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">on
synaptic strings.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">This is
why<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I don’t
know anything<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">About what<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In truth<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I think<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Or who<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In truth<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I am<o:p></o:p></span></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-88433128345327472922023-07-27T10:01:00.001-07:002023-07-27T10:01:15.890-07:00<p> </p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhHRrH3hsrPOY1u-rd8PJ2aqEm8BDIrSV2FwynSpNDDs7AHCwKp56gFVmpSKXio5WQc8pTEW1ruDXgqSfcPSnljVfm-m53hjaqFsati4MXsqmg2GINrDx8d-73la0pqxrSixzN9wNpP6M-ccuwTkTOi-urs_fb0tDcD17U_D1wrJoexLJbuVr7mk3QWfFMq" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="612" data-original-width="612" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhHRrH3hsrPOY1u-rd8PJ2aqEm8BDIrSV2FwynSpNDDs7AHCwKp56gFVmpSKXio5WQc8pTEW1ruDXgqSfcPSnljVfm-m53hjaqFsati4MXsqmg2GINrDx8d-73la0pqxrSixzN9wNpP6M-ccuwTkTOi-urs_fb0tDcD17U_D1wrJoexLJbuVr7mk3QWfFMq" width="240" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">My newest book, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://anthempress.com/key-concepts-and-contemporary-approaches-to-structured-inequality-hb">Key
Concepts and Contemporary Approaches to Structural Inequality<span style="font-style: normal;">,</span></a></i> is based on a seminar I teach on the
topic of social stratification. In the course and in the book, I make an effort
to avoid what I see as the biggest problem in current academic treatments of
inequality, the tendency to base approaches on ideological bias and to present
opinions as facts. I don’t argue that our thinking about social issues can ever
be free from the influence of background or values. But this means that we
should try to consider how our ideas are affected by the limitations of our
experiences and interests, not that we can make the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad hominem</i><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"> argument </span>that
views can be judged right or wrong because of the race, gender, class,
geographical origin, or upbringing of the person who holds the ideas. None of
us, of any background, see the world from the vantage point of heaven. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">I’ve included the introduction to the book below. If this
looks interesting, both hard and electronic copies (the ebook is much less
expensive) are available from the publisher or from <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Concepts-Contemporary-Approaches-Structured-Inequality-ebook/dp/B0C6Q4SJ4N/ref=sr_1_1?crid=26LPV1T18PKTM&keywords=key+concepts+and+contemporary+approaches&qid=1690476976&s=books&sprefix=key+concepts+and+contemporaty+approaches%2Cstripbooks%2C190&sr=1-1">Amazon</a>
or <a href="https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/key-concepts-and-contemporary-approaches-to-structured-inequality-carl-bankston-iii/1141942155">Barnes
and Noble</a>. In order to make this as widely and freely available as
possible, I encourage potential readers to ask their libraries to stock copies.<o:p></o:p></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 200%;"><a name="_Toc117690067">Introduction: How We Think
About Inequality</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">When I
teach a course in social stratification, I usually begin the first class by
asking students to list some of the ways in which people are unequal.
Inevitably, their first answers are heavily freighted with moral judgements
current in the modern university. People are unequal, they answer, because some
grow up in privileged circumstances, while others do not. People are unequal
because they suffer from racial discrimination</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>discrimination</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, or benefit from it. People are
unequal because some have less access than others to education</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>education</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or healthcare. Gender roles constrict
opportunities for some and expand opportunities for others. Differences in
treatment by police and the legal system have become increasingly common among
the first answers in recent years.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I
generally do not disagree with the moral orientations implicit in these
examples. In fact, in most ways I share the values dominant in contemporary
academia. But the first answers my students give constitute a free association
test. Our initial associations tell us as much about our own minds as they do
about the realities surrounding us. Are there other ways in which people are
unequal? With a little prodding, the students will move on to a host of
individual characteristics. Some are physically stronger. Some can run faster.
Some have musical talents or are good at writing or mathematics. Some are
especially diligent at whatever they do.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">As we
talk about these ways in which people are unequal, the difference between
structural inequalities, the kinds they view with suspicion or disfavor, and
individual inequalities, the kinds they see as inevitable and even desirable,
emerges. Is there some connection, though, between the two types? If someone
shows exceptional musical skill and learns to play the piano at age three without
lessons, might the fact that there is a piano in the house have something to do
with the development of individual talent even in this extreme case? <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If one argues that individual outcomes have
nothing to do with abilities or personal characteristics, and that the outcomes
are just reflections of positions in an unequal social structure, the obvious
implication is that people have no agency. But if one argues that all
variations in life circumstances could be attributed to individual abilities
and efforts, then there would be no such thing as opportunity. The person with
no piano in the house would have just as much of a chance to become an
accomplished player as someone with an instrument, living in an ideal situation
for developing musical talent.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
complicated relationship between individual action and social position is one
of the fundamental topics of stratification, I suggest to the students.
Connected to this is the question of why, apart from personal qualities, life
chances can differ. What makes a piano more or less widely available or
influences which homes will have them and which will not?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
issue of individual and structural inequalities leads to looking more carefully
at those moral orientations. The word “inequality” immediately called up
negative associations, but are most students (or most people) really opposed to
all forms of inequality?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Do they believe
that everyone should have exactly the same income</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>income</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or live in homes of exactly the same
value?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Yes” is a perfectly legitimate
answer to questions like this, but only if one takes an ideological stance that
few students actually accept.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most will
say that inequality is acceptable, or even desirable, to the extent that it results
from individual skills and actions, rather than from structural positions. But
that returns to the recognition that what people can do is unavoidably linked
to where they are in a society.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Two of
the main kinds of equality, I suggest, are equality of opportunity and equality
of condition. The few who would answer “yes” to the questions above would
logically have to discard the former altogether. Opportunity is an inherently
competitive idea, one that necessitates inequality of outcomes. But equal
opportunity is also a problem. If we have unequal conditions, then we cannot
compete on an equal basis. If we compete, then we create unequal conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Equality
of condition, moreover, often involves baselines. If we reject the goal of
making everyone’s situation the same, we can still hold that there are some
universal standards. Concerns about discriminatory treatment by police and the
justice system derive from the view that all individuals should be equal under
the law even if they are unequal in wealth or prestige</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>prestige</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">. Assertions that healthcare,
education</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:
minor-bidi'>education</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, or a minimal standard of living
constitute human rights are claims that even in a stratified society there
should be base levels. But who decides what these base levels should be and how
can they be guaranteed? If people differ in power or in wealth, how can the
differences be prevented from affecting actual treatment by the legal system or
the quality of available healthcare?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Behind
all of these considerations lies something much broader. What shapes the
setting in which we compete or in which we live in relatively similar
circumstances? What forces influence our opinions about the baselines should be
and what are the debates about those baselines? How much control can people
exercise over this setting and which people exercise that control? <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
present text is inspired by fundamental questions like these. It is an effort
to put the topic of social stratification into a concise volume that introduces
readers to the main theories and concepts of this topic, to ways of analyzing
existing inequalities, to developments in social stratification today, and to
political and policy debates about<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>social and economic inequality.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc117690068">Stratification as a Social Construction</a><o:p></o:p></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Stratification,
or structured inequality, is a social construction in two senses. First, the
positions that exist in every human society are results of social processes and
differ across time and place. Second, the ways that we think about those
positions are shaped by our participation in particular societies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">To
illustrate the first sense, we can consider the difference between the
organization of human societies and that of other social creatures. Ants and
bees are also social creatures, and they live in communities characterized by hierarchical
division of labor</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'>division of labor</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'>division
of labor</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(see, for example, the classic work on social
insects by Edward O. Wilson</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>Wilson, William Julius</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, 1971). Within varieties of social insects, though,
one can find few differences in social organization. Even among social animals
that are more similar to us, such as gorillas and our close cousins, the two
types of chimpanzees</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'>chimpanzees</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, social organization within species tends to vary
relatively little. By contrast, though, there is such an enormous range of
differentiation among present and past human societies that it is difficult to
identify the limits of possible change in the future. One of the chief tasks of
an overview of the subject of human social stratification, then, is to grapple
with the question of what causes variation in the unequal structuring of
societies. This is essential not just for understanding our current situation,
but also for adopting policy responses to it.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
second sense in which stratification is socially constructed is a matter of the
sociology of knowledge. In social science, we face the challenge of embedded
subjectivity. Even as we try to describe our social world, our social world is
shaping our perceptions and descriptions. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For much of human history, people interpreted
structured inequality as the given order of the world. This way of thinking
about societies as divided into orders has also carried normative judgement: in
a well-ordered society people are supposed to stay within their orders, often
circumscribed by sumptuary laws and norms defining how people in different
levels should dress or carry themselves.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
vision of stratification that now dominates modern understandings and
expectations is, no less than the feudal vision, a product of the society
itself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rapid social change, especially
stimulated by the industrial revolution and the emergence of market societies, led
us to emphasize the inherent changeability of social forms. The changeability
applied to individuals, as well as to the positions of those individuals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A status became a place in society that one
occupies, rather than an identity that one holds. This way of seeing social
structure and the relationship between individuals and social structure bore
its own normative judgements.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">In the
free association of my students’ responses to the question of inequality, there
is a kind of implicit social contract perspective that entails a generally
unconscious assumption of a sort of non-social state of nature. Individuals are
inherently equal in identities undetermined by social forces. . Because they
can, in theory, move among statuses, they retain a true identity outside of any
particular status. Inequality is acceptable to the extent that it results from
the actions of individuals freely entering into social positions and
unacceptable to the extent that it results from social forms that constrain and
define individuals.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">We can
see our assumptions about the relationship between individuals and social
structure reflected in the way we talk about social influences. “Society
teaches us that ….” Or “society tells us that …,” with the things that
“society” teaches us or tells us understood to be distorting the true nature of
things. It is as if we could return to the paradise inside ourselves if only we
would stop listening to the external voice of society.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Recognizing
that the concepts and values of modern liberal democracy</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>democracy</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>are socially constructed and often carry unexamined
assumptions does not mean rejecting those concepts and values as mere
illusions. To do so would be to discard the very possibility of any kind of
knowledge or judgement. But it does necessitate introspection and reflexivity
in order to clarify the influences on our own thinking.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">In
this book, I have tried to look at the difficult topic of structured inequality
in a way that invites the reader to debate and clarify theoretical approaches
to stratification and recognizes the reflexive nature of sociological thinking.
Beyond that, though, I have tried to bring in empirical evidence on
contemporary stratification. Based on theory and evidence, I have attempted to delineate
what that contemporary stratification means for political life and what policy
responses may be possible. Of course, I cannot stand in a place of perfect
objectivity and, like every other observer, I wear blinders of background and
experience.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I encourage readers to take
this text critically in a spirit of debate and reasoned discourse.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc117690069"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Concise
Overview of Stratification</b></a><!--[if supportFields]><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></b> XE "overview of
stratification" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></b><![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></b><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>XE "overview of stratification" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></b><![endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">This
book begins with major theories of stratification and then proceeds to lay out
the fundamental concepts of this area of social science. It then takes an
empirical look at contemporary stratification, beginning with the influential
race</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:
minor-bidi'>race</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">-class-gender orientation and with
the evidence regarding this way of organizing facts about social inequality. It
follows by describing the environmental setting of structured inequality today.
It then moves to possible causes of inequality of individuals within social
structures. In the final section, the text treats stratification as a political
issue and then examines some of the major policy responses to structured
inequality.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
first chapter deals with theories. The first section describes two pre-sociological
views of sources of social inequality and a third view by a founder of
sociology that expressed a program of intentional social design. The second
chapter examines how the most important classic sociological theorists who were
concerned with stratification set frameworks for thinking about structured
inequality. The third chapter deals with the modern approaches of
structural-functionalism</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>functionalism</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or order theory, of conflict</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>conflict theory</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>theory, and it ends by discussing how
ecological-evolutionary</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>ecological-evolutionary
theory</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>theory can provide a synthesis.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
Two follows theories of structured stratification by giving readers clear
understandings of the main concepts and means of measurement. It lays out first
the concepts of status, caste, and class. It then moves on to the related
concept of mobility, placing particular emphasis on the distinction between
individual and structural mobility</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>structural mobility</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, on how these two are connected. The distinction
between individual and structural mobility sets the stage for a section on
status attainment</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:
minor-bidi'>status attainment</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and class as ways of studying inequality. A
section on the hotly debated concept of meritocracy</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>meritocracy</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>follows from these two ways of studying and
thinking about inequality. The chapter ends with an explication of
measurements, looking at measurements of degrees</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>degrees, educational</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of ownership
and control and at the components of the commonly used index of socioeconomic
status</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:
minor-bidi'>socioeconomic status</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
third chapter opens the discussion of contemporary stratification with a
discussion of the current social and economic setting of structured inequality.
This chapter is essentially application of a class analysis perspective to
contemporary stratification. It begins wih a section on increasing inequality
as a characteristic of contemporary highly developed societies, and in
particular of the United States and it then proceeds to present evidence
regarding a growing socioeconomic division. Following this discussion of the
division, the book looks at how globalization and the expansion of the importance
of the financial and technological sectors resulting from globalization have
affected social stratification. In the next section of the chapter, the book
considers the movement of people as part of the same process as the movement of
goods and services. It examines how immigration has contributed to change in
the American population and links this change to the issue of ethnic
stratification and to debates about the growing divide</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>divide, socioeconomic</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">. It follows by putting economic and demographic
developments into the broader context of globalization and the increasing
dominance of technology and finance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
final section explores the issue of a cultural and ideological divide</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>divide, socioeconomic</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>accompanying
the socioeconomic divide</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>divide, socioeconomic</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, linking the cultural consequences of economic change
with attitudes toward demographic change.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
fourth chapter follows this examination of the socioeconomic setting with a
consideration of the topic of categorical inequality, the race</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>race</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">-class-gender orientation that
occupies a large part of current discourse in the social sciences. The chapter
deals with how a race-gender-class view can provide insights into existing
stratification, and also suggests that there are aspects of social inequality
that may not receive attention from focusing exclusively on social categories
of advantage and disadvantage. It begins with a section on racial and ethnic
inequality, looking briefly at the historical background of this form of
categorical stratification and providing a summary of the social movements that
have brought race and ethnicity</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>ethnicity</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to the forefront of public attention. It gives
evidence of the continuing influence of race and ethnicity in distribution of
resources and opportunities and in explicit and implicit discriminatory
treatment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">A
section on gender follows the one on race</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>race</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and ethnicity</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>ethnicity</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">. It begins by briefly discussing
the apparent origins of gender roles and in touching on historical and
contemporary differences. It argues that contemporary demands for change in
gender roles derive from the rise of the corporate society, the entry of women
into the labor force, and the influence of the civil rights movement. It ends
by discussing the broadening of the concept of gender and gender equality by
looking at the extension of this concept to non-heterosexual categories.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Although
the topic of class runs throughout the text, because this is an important kind
of categorical equality, this topic receives special attention in a section in
this chapter. Although class may be defined in different ways, as a social
category it generally refers to those who occupy the same economic situation.
This section offers a brief summary of how relatively advantaged and
disadvantaged economic categories influence life outcomes.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
chapter on categorical inequality ends with a section on intersectionality, on
how categories of disadvantage may intersect and overlap. This section
discusses how this kind of focus on interaction can be useful because it
recognizes that race</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>race</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">/ethnicity</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>ethnicity</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, gender, and class, may work in
different ways for people in different groups. The section gives examples to
illustrate this point. However, an intersectional approach can also lead us to
overlook aspects of stratification that cannot be readily resolved into
questions of advantage vs. disadvantage or oppressors vs. oppressed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
5 turns to the problem of causation, of what makes people unequal. While the
previous chapter described the structural setting of stratification, this chapter
connects that class analysis view to the question of status attainment</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>status attainment</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">. In separate sections, the chapter considers
discrimination</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:
minor-bidi'>discrimination</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, culture, family structure</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>family structure</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and family
relations, educational resources, and social networks</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>social networks</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as causes of unequal outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The chapter ends by proposing a way of
integrating these causes into a diagram that suggests a causal chain<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
final chapter turns to matters of politics and policy. Again, the study of
stratification is not limited to describing the structure of society and
identifying causes. It also entails evaluation and decisions about action. I
suggest that stratification is a political issue for two main reasons. First,
the type and degree of inequality in a society shape the distribution of power
and influence among individuals and groups. Second, responding to inequality is
unavoidably a matter of governmental policy, whether the response is one of
promoting inequality, passive acceptance, or some form of active egalitarian
intervention. The sections in this chapter describe political dilemmas posed by
stratification and possible policy responses. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
first subsection treats the power elite problem, the tendency to concentrate
control in a small number of actors. Related to this, but from a different
perspective, a second subsection examines concerns about the managerial state.
This is the Weberian influenced view that bureaucracy concentrates control, and
that even social reformist bureaucracies</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>bureaucracies</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>can become organizational oligarchies. The
third subsection deals with what is sometimes a reaction to perceptions of
bureaucratic concentration. This is the phenomenon of illiberal populism</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%;font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:
minor-bidi'>populism</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, an alliance between a leader and
a mass power base.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">A
section on policy looks at some of the major policy responses to structured
inequality. This include government programs to promote upward mobility, affirmative
action</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span lang=EN-GB
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB'>affirmative action</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and categorical
reparations</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span> XE "<span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'>reparations</span>"
<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">, tax policies, and efforts to establish an economic
floor through minimum wage</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>minimum wage</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and universal basic income</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>income</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">. The subsections in this part of
the book try to weigh arguments for and against each of these policy
approaches.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
“for and against” strategy for considering specific policies leads to the final
short chapter of the book. This is an effort to lay out general considerations
in thinking about redistribution</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span></span>
XE "<span style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'>redistribution</span>" <![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">. It lays out the competing
philosophical, political, and economic arguments for and against
redistribution. This section emphasizes that most of us are neither radical
egalitarians in all respects nor proponents of undisturbed laissez-faire
inequality. In understanding how to think about structured inequality, readers
must examine their own assumptions and the implications of their views.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">At the
end of each of these chapters readers will find a discussion and debate
section. These sections are intended to engage readers in the topics involved in
structured inequality, to actively and critically summarize the main points in
each chapter, and to encourage readers to think their positions regarding these
topics. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-49197553632268621142023-07-26T08:08:00.000-07:002023-07-26T08:08:46.481-07:00<p> </p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjNdngPaN_wfl-FaozlScp6TOGZmKVmo9m-gFTbKKW5MnpCYWLgGJtU77Qjk9obRP3g27OrhBI_P02gfRPeLfLtaguVqyxmSeJovQ6A4jKo6jpRPxIDvuD1ySnDSUIBd6G7ZdZz3mCWMVVyVj5kMH_xy2PuFX4_x3Nj69AEYJEfl3h74iP0M9F8sBFufqc9" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="612" data-original-width="612" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjNdngPaN_wfl-FaozlScp6TOGZmKVmo9m-gFTbKKW5MnpCYWLgGJtU77Qjk9obRP3g27OrhBI_P02gfRPeLfLtaguVqyxmSeJovQ6A4jKo6jpRPxIDvuD1ySnDSUIBd6G7ZdZz3mCWMVVyVj5kMH_xy2PuFX4_x3Nj69AEYJEfl3h74iP0M9F8sBFufqc9" width="240" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Rethinking Social Capital</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The topic of
“social capital” has been central to my work in social theory for years. In
November 2021, I gave a talk to the International Social Capital Association,
entitled “In What Sense is Social Capital ‘Capital’?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A recording is available on YouTube <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQF1oqZZz7Q">here</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In 2022, I
published the book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQF1oqZZz7Q">Rethinking Social Capital</a></i></span>.
I am grateful to Min Zhou and Glenn Loury for <a href="https://www.e-elgar.com/shop/gbp/rethinking-social-capital-9781800379787.html">their
praise of the book</a>.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A review of the book can be found <a href="https://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/rethinking-social-capital-book-review/">here</a>.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">I sometimes
receive requests for copies of my books in pdf or other format. I would like to
make all of my work freely available, but I am afraid this would violate
agreements with my publishers. I have posted the introduction to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rethinking Social Capital</i> below. If this
looks interesting, readers can find electronic or hard copies available for
purchase through the publisher link or request the book through institutional
or public libraries.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a name="_Toc82335730"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; text-transform: uppercase;">Introduction:
The Project of Rethinking Social Capital</span></b></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">More
years ago than I care to recount, I returned to the United States from a
half-decade working in a refugee camp, preparing refugees from Vietnam,
Cambodia, and Laos for resettlement in my country. After contributing so much
time and effort to this population transfer, I wanted to look at the
consequences both for the country of resettlement and for the resettled. So, I
went back to academia to research. There, I made various contacts, most notably
my co-author Min Zhou, who helped me develop my theoretical approach.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">As I
looked at how Southeast Asians were adapting to life in the new homeland, I
became aware of two points. First, a study of adaptation had to be
future-oriented. Fitting in happens over time and understanding how any set of
people fit in means looking at how past and present circumstances lead toward
future circumstances. For a group of people, a future orientation meant a focus
on the younger members of the group. Second, the study had to incorporate both
individuals as members of groups and groups as assemblages of individuals.
Neither a purely individual-level approach nor a purely aggregate-level
approach would work. People form their lives in collaboration with other people.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Following
these two points, I came to concentrate my study on young people in a
Vietnamese community and on their relations to their community affected their
adaptation to American society through schooling, the primary avenue for entry
into modern life. The study of schooling and of how social settings outside of
schools affect educational results led me to James S. Coleman, one of the
leading lights of the sociology of education and a pioneer in social capital
theory. At the same time, I had the privilege of working with one of Coleman’s
students, the brilliant theorist of social networks Scott Feld. Collaborating
with Min Zhou, I was heavily influenced by her work on the role of ethnic
niches in enabling survival and mobility for members of new immigrant groups
and by the work of her mentor, Alejandro Portes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In developing the ideas of segmented
assimilation and ethnic economies, Portes had analyzed, incorporated, and
refined the concept of social capital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Moving
beyond the study of immigrants alone, I became interested in social capital
more generally. Robert S. Putnam’s views on social capital as associational
engagement appeared on the scene in the second half of the 1990s. In some
respects, these views were similar to those I had employed in the examination
of an immigrant community, but in other respects, such as the emphasis on
social capital as a resource for a nation, these views seemed different. I also
encountered mainly normative formulations of social capital, such as the
equation with the value of trust. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I
became aware that at some points financial capital seemed not to serve as an
exact model of how social relations could work as assets. This did not seem to
me to completely invalidate treating interpersonal relations as resources for
investment. But in what way did they serve as resources? How might connections
among people be understood as “capital?”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">As the
term “social capital” has come into wide use, it has become common for
researchers and theorists to observe that the term is applied in so many
different ways and to so many different situations that it is often difficult
to say precisely what this term means (Portes 1998; Sandefur and Laumann 1998;
Sampson, Morenoff, and Earls 1999).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While social scientists have struggled to define the concept
theoretically, they have also engaged in debates over how to operationalize and
measure it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Level of analysis has posed
a particular problem.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Social capital has
been located at the level of the individual, the informal social group, the
formal organization, the community, the ethnic group, and even the nation
(Coleman, 1988; Portes 1998; Putnam, 1995; Sampson, Morenoff, and Earls 1999). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">As I
have considered all of the different ways in which social capital has been
defined, I have often fallen back on the ancient Hindu or Jain fable about the
blind men and the elephant. The one who touched the animal’s trunk exclaimed
that it was like a tree. The one who touched its side remarked that it was like
a wall. The one who held its tail asserted that it resembled a rope. All of
these, of course, were parts of a larger entity. Similarly, the different ways
of conceptualizing social capital; as norms and values, as efficient structures
of community relations, as support and direction, or as associational memberships;
might be effectively understood as parts of an encompassing conceptual entity.
This implies that the task of re-thinking social capital consists of precisely
identifying those different parts and specifying how they fit together.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Pursuing
this task of identification and integration, in this book I have tried to
address the most notable and pressing questions in social capital research.
What does the term mean, taking into consideration the different ways in which
it has been used? In what sense is it a coherent causal explanation? Given the
different meanings, how can it be operationalized? What are the major
difficulties with the concept? How can it be applied to different fields of
inquiry?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Plan
and Summary of the Book<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I have
divided this book into two parts. Part 1 deals with clarifying the theoretical
issues involved in social capital. The chapters in the first part attempt to
define social capital within the more general idea of “capital” as resources
for investment in future outcomes, to examine how social relationships can
function as investments to produce possible results, to discuss the problems
and complications involved in thinking about social relations as investments on
the analogy of financial resources, and to consider how social capital and
social structure are interconnected.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Part 2
turns from social capital theory to the applications of the idea of social
capital to research in major areas of social science. It explores applications
of social capital ideas to families, communities, and education; to
understanding the relationships between formal organizations and informal
relations; to issues of various forms of stratification; and to questions
concerning nation-states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
1 opens the theoretical part by describing the idea of “capital” more broadly
and considering in what way social relationships can be considered as
investments. The chapter begins by discussing how resources become investments
when directed toward future profits, instead of current enjoyment. The core
idea of an investment is that it consists of financial resources that are
stored to be put into an enterprise, rather than consumed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Delayed gratification and a future
orientation are the most basic characteristics of any kind of capital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
phrase “human capital” developed as economists and other social scientists
realized that the use of financial resources to realize future results depends
on the existence of knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to exploit those
resources. I discuss the different forms of human capital and the distinction
between individual and collective human capital. This distinction will appear
again in the examination of social capital. Because both financial capital and
human capital are based on a future orientation, cultural traits lie behind
both forms. I discuss the two main ways in which cultural capital has been
defined, as values and habits that lead to profitable outcomes and as cultural
markers that provide access to privileged groups. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
line between cultural capital and social capital is often indistinct, so the
consideration of culture as a source of assets leads to the ways in which the
word “capital” has been applied to social relations. A final section of the
chapter develops the previous discussions of different forms of capital to
clarify just what is meant by social capital. It identifies three main ways of
presenting social capital in the literature. The first, essentially overlaps
with cultural capital. The second involves patterns of interconnections among
individuals. The third is a matter of engagement in social relations and
institutions. The section then proceeds to examine how these three ways of
conceptualizing social capital may be connected through a discussion of the
pay-off of social relations.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
2 proceeds from the discussion of the main forms of social capital to a an
examination of how social capital works. The chapter begins by describing how
researchers have treated the functioning of social capital as a matter of
network structures. The fundamental idea of social capital is that
relationships among sets of people can constitute assets. These assets can be
seen as generated by the internal organization, or network structure, that
exists among some set of people. The chapter briefly goes over the properties
of networks relevant to social capital, setting the stage for a more schematic
discussion in the chapter dealing with social structures.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The chapter proceeds to detail how social
capital often works through the phenomenon of “opportunity hoarding.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A section of the chapter examines the
“non-zero sum” and “zero sum” aspects of social relations as investments.
Social capital can be considered non-zero sum when the resources generated by
connections within a group of people produce benefits for others outside the
group, as well as for group members. Zero-sum social capital is essentially
competitive and exists when members of a group compete with outsiders for
benefits or opportunities. Connections among those in the group enable them to
hoard those benefits or opportunities for members and to exclude outsiders.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
chapter points out that capital; whether financial, human, or social; is
competitive in nature. Classic approaches to competition in societies tend to
present this as a matter of individuals competing with other individuals.
However, connections are frequently essential to the ability of individuals to
get outcomes. A subsection discusses how group membership shapes
individual-level competition and how group use access to goods and opportunities
to direct benefits to their own members and exclude outsiders.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Going
on to consider solidarity and efficiency, I point out that solidarity is one of
the core concepts of sociological theory, rooted in the work of Emile Durkheim.
This subsection is concerned with how variations in solidarity promote or
hinder group efficiency and enable members to achieve individual and group
goals. Competition between sets of individuals depends not only on their access
to resources, but also on how solidarity encourages efficient action.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Moving
from enabling group competition as a way in which social capital works, I
consider the dynamics of interpersonal relations as assets. L begin by looking
at connections among people as information channels. Structural perspectives
tend to stress network form as the way in which social capital works. Cultural
perspectives tend to stress values and knowledge as social resources. Here, I
argue that these two perspectives can be combined by considering networks as
channels of information to group members. Under the designation “information,”
I include both material information about opportunities and resources and
immaterial information such as expectations and cultural orientations.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Social
capital also functions through constraints and direction. Groups enable
productive action by constraining unproductive behavior and directing
individuals toward desired outcomes, The book here connects enabling and
constraining relations to social network characteristics.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I
conclude the analysis of how social capital works by discussing an essential
aspect of the situational relativity of interpersonal relations as resources
for investment. The social capital that functions through information channels
and constraints / direction can be either compensatory or complementary. It is
compensatory when the connections among people enable them to compensate for a
disadvantaged social setting. It is complementary when these connections enable
them to capitalize on an advantaged setting.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
3 details the main problems and contradictions within social capital theory.
This chapter begins by considering the imperfect analogy of financial, human,
and social capital. In particular, I point out here that financial capital is a
clearly identifiable quantity of resources for investment. It is “capital,”
regardless of whether the investment succeeds in yielding the intended profit.
Human capital comes in a variety of forms, but one can usually consider it in
measure terms of amount of education or training or in terms of identifiable
skills. Social capital, by contrast, is a process that emerges across levels of
interaction. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Following
the idea that social capital is a kind of capital because it results in
benefits, it may be suspected of being a tautology. Why can social relations be
described as a form of social capital? Because they lead to desirable outcomes.
Why do they lead to desirable outcomes? Because they are social capital.
Conversely, if arrangement of people has less desirable outcomes, we describe
it as having a low social capital endowment on the basis of the outcome. I
suggest that bringing in some element of specific predictability can help
address the problem of logical circularity.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
problem of intentionality is another potential difficulty with social capital
theory. Financial and human capital consist of assets invest in order to
achieve results. Investments may have externalities, or unintended
consequences, but their goals are intentional. From the perspective of
intentionality, the problem with social capital is that it most often consists
almost entirely of externalities. People do form relationships with each other
in order to realize goals. Most often when we speak of social capital we are
referring to benefits inherent in the interpersonal relations themselves,
rather than goals of the interpersonal relations.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Next,
the chapter considers the question of who benefits from interpersonal
relations. This is a difficulty that we can also find with both financial and
human capital. What constitutes a benefit for some groups may constitute a
disadvantage for others. Even within groups of people, social relations can pay
off for some at the expense of others. This problem leads to the thorny issue
of “negative social capital.” <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">To
look at the different ways in which social capital can be considered negative,
I draw heavily on Alejandro Portes’s clear and succinct statement of this
issue. Ultimately, I argue that If social relations really can be a liability
in some relevant regard, then I suggest that it makes no sense to refer to them
as somehow assets. From this point of view, “negative social capital” is a
contradiction in terms and cannot exist. The most reasonable approach, in my
view, would be to recognize that interpersonal relations are not always assets
for investment and that even when they are they may be invested in many
different ways and that they have a range of externalities and unintended
consequences. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
Durheimian assumptions behind concepts of social capital do support the
argument that some social situations may not be profitable. Social capital
theory is at core a version of order theory, of how the ordering of human
relations enables collaboration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A lack
of cooperation or the absence of connections among people or connections that
are too loose to provide control and direction to individuals can result in
conflict or anomie. Here, though, the problem is not a kind of social capital
that is negative, but a lack of social capital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Part 1
ends by considering social capital and social structure. This is the part of
the book that ties together the previously expressed concepts and develops
these into a schematic portrayal of the whole “elephant” of social capital.
Chapter 4 is both the center of the book and the core of the book’s project of
rethinking social capital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
first section of this chapter considers the micro-macro problem in the social
sciences and how this relates to social capital. Macrosociology involves the
study of large-scale structures in societies, while microsociology focuses on
small groups and relationships among individuals. Integrating these two levels
is a continual challenge in social theory. This section argues that looking at
networks as facilitators of social action through the production of resources
for individuals and at individuals as constituents of networks at different levels
can help bridge the micro-macro gap and also address the related problem of
social structure and individual agency.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
chapter follows the micro-macro issue with an ecological argument that social
structures are environments within which interpersonal relations take place.
Although social capital perspectives have a tendency to concentrate on how
connections between actors produce outcomes, this section points out that those
connections never take place in a vacuum. Historical, political, socioeconomic,
and legal setting always constitute an environment within which interpersonal
relations operate.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Earlier
I maintained that one of the distinctions between financial capital and social
capital is that the former is a quantity while the latter is an emergent
process In the section devoted to drawing up a model of the social capital
process, I bring together the different pieces of the puzzle and to describe
the process in a precise and schematic fashion. In a general model of social
capital, I introduce the shared historical background of any set of people as
an exogenous factor, although history is in reality recursive and always <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in media res.</i> The discussion of the
model describes how group images and self-images, levels of financial and human
capital, and locational tendencies result from historical backgrounds and
affect social capital components. These influences on social capital components
take place within the labor market demand and political and legal structures
existing at any point in time. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I
identify the components of social capital as community forms, household
structures, and organizational foci, and I describe these in some detail. These
components of social capital, I argue, operate through social control and
support and through providing information channels. By these mechanisms, social
relations result in pay-offs in future financial and human capital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Following
the point that social capital pays off in future financial and human capital, I
end Part 1 with an autobiographically based discussion of intergenerational
looping in the production and reproduction of social capital. This final
section provides a bridge from the theoretical matters of Part I to the
applications of social capital theory in Part 2.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">This
second section goes over some of the applications of social capital theory in
order to clarify what its uses may be and what it can tell us about our world.
Chapter 5 deals with the connections among families, communities, and
education, a common topic in the social capital literature. The first section
of this chapter gives examples of how families serve both as constraining and
enabling types of social capital for their members. It considers ways in which
families bring resources to their members and affect the behavior and expectations
of their members. It looks in particular at child-parent relations, at family
forms as investments, at the relationship of maternal employment to social
capital, and at sibling relations as possible sources of interpersonal assets.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">One of
the common topics in social capital research concerns social capital in the
creation of human capital. Chapter 5 ends with a discussion of the relevance of
families and communities for education. Drawing on my own previous work, as
well as on that of other researchers, I look at how the social resources
produced by families and communities result in varying outcomes in schooling.
Based on this discussion, this final section of the chapter raises questions
about the extent to which to which educational outcomes can be determined by
policymakers. Through the topic of schooling, this section provides a
transition to the next chapter on informal networks and formal organizations.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
6 deals with how informal networks and formal organizations are connected. It
presents evidence from the literature on how patterns of social relations
outside of schools, workplaces, and religious institutions affect how those
organizations function and how networks function within organizations. It then
considers formal organizations as focal points for social networks.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Schools,
religious institutions, and corporations exist within surrounding environments.
More concretely, this means that how they work is not just a matter of what the
organizations themselves do, but even more importantly how they connect with
the patterns of relationships that students and teachers, congregants or
parishioners, and employees bring into the organizations. The first section of
this chapter lays out the evidence in the research literature on how informal
networks can promote or inhibit organizational goals.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
second section borrows the term “network foci” from the work of sociologist
Scott Feld. This term is based on the idea that formal organizations are
centers for creating and maintaining networks. This section provides examples
of situations in which formal organizations serve as focal points for family
and community relations.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
7 extends the application of the social capital model to various forms of
inequality, including class, race, and ethnicity. Here, the book moves to
large-scale uses of social capital theory, applying the structure-social
capital discussion in the previous section. It illustrates how patterns of
interpersonal relations both result from historically produced structured inequality
and perpetuate it based on the model of social capital developed by the end of
Part I.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
chapter opens with a general discussion of social capital and stratification.
It employs a specific example, drawn from the classic work of Melvin Kohn and
his associates to demonstrate how this book’s proposed model of social capital
can provide a way of understanding class stratification over the course of
generations. The chapter focuses on another example, in the work of William
Julius Wilson, to then apply the social capital model to racial inequality. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Two
final sections of Chapter 7 consider ethnic inequality, based on my own work on
new immigrant ethnicities in the United States. First, the chapter applies the
social capital model to an ethnic group at the lower levels of ethnic
stratification, Mexican Americans. Then, the last section of the chapter turns
to the ethnic group at the top of the American system of ethnic stratification,
Asian Indian Americans.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Chapter
8 examines how the social capital model is relevant at the level of the
nation-state, as well as at the levels of individuals, groups, and
organizations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It first presents the
relevance of social capital for the nation-state by looking first at how
demography is associated with solidarity, and at how demographic heterogeneity
or homogeneity may produce different kinds of social resources. It then turns
to the matter of civic culture as a product of social network relations. It
then looks at a specific example of social capital at the nation-state level,
examining this in terms of the proposed general model of social capital.
Finally, this chapter address the difficult matter of proposed strategies for
building or re-building social capital at the level of the nation-state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">In the
section on diversity vs. solidarity, I discuss the circumstances in which
either homogeneity-based solidarity or demographic heterogeneity may constitute
social capital Suggesting that this is a version of Durkheimian views on
mechanical and organic solidarity, I indicate that a social capital
interpretation of national life leads to the conclusion that even the most
demographically diverse nation must be based on some foundation of uniformity
of belief and commitment. This point about a national foundation of belief and
commitment then leads to a section on the famous “bowling alone” thesis and
civic culture. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">For a
specific application of the social capital model to the nation-state, I bring
in Denmark, a country that is often reported to be uniquely successful in
achieving political and social goals. This example raises the question of how
social capital may be developed at the level of the nation. The chapter ends by
looking at a number of policy proposals for building national social capital.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">The
conclusion provides a brief summary of the two sections of the book. In terms
of theory, the conclusion suggests that social capital is a widely used but
often poorly defined concept that is an imperfect metaphor based on the idea of
financial investment. It maintains, though, that interpersonal networks can be
seen as assets that can be invested in outcomes and discusses the ways in which
patterns of connections can produce desirable outcomes. Although the networks
as capital idea can help us understand social action, though, it is not a
complete explanation and must be put into a broader model of environmental
influences, such as the one proposed at the end of Part 1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By giving applications of social capital
theory to major sociological topics, Part 2 has demonstrated some of the ways
in which social capital theory can make practical contributions to social
research.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></i></b>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-8753768183026526352021-05-23T07:19:00.000-07:002021-05-23T07:19:13.358-07:00Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Family Structure, and Schools<p> </p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDHAQY06zgPTSA8U5roeY6K6sV-VAJQkYqBXrKOplZJ4LzHqC2-QTx2Kn1ovCoiXHGZuxpit0gCFbXaQTB8SIZj-uxeNEkehLs4S0iQQncrTbq8H3FsQt5Ej0agZs3__3n9oeLZGNEvtYR/s1515/Moynihan+in+NYTimes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="994" data-original-width="1515" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDHAQY06zgPTSA8U5roeY6K6sV-VAJQkYqBXrKOplZJ4LzHqC2-QTx2Kn1ovCoiXHGZuxpit0gCFbXaQTB8SIZj-uxeNEkehLs4S0iQQncrTbq8H3FsQt5Ej0agZs3__3n9oeLZGNEvtYR/w397-h210/Moynihan+in+NYTimes.jpg" width="397" /></a></div><br />(Image reproduced from the <i>NYTimes</i>)<p></p><p class="MsoNormal">I have just read<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/15/books/review/daniel-patrick-moynihan-was-often-right-joe-klein-on-why-it-still-matters.html">
Joel Klein’s excellent article</a> on the life of Daniel Patrick Moynihan n
today’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York Times Book Review</i>.
Moynihan has long been one of my own intellectual heroes. In our 2014 book on
the problems of desegregation, Stephen J. Caldas and I wrote about the
implications of the famous (or notorious, depending on your perspective) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Moynihan Report</i> for attempts to
desegregate American schools. I reproduce the relevant section below.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">From <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Still Failing:
The Continuing Paradox of School Desegregation</i>, by Stephen J. Caldas and
Carl L. Bankston III (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014):<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Five decades ago, Daniel Patrick
Moynihan touched off a storm of controversy when he argued that the high
proportion of single female-headed families among black Americans threatened
black children with a "tangle of pathologies."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of his critics denounced his views as
racist; others claimed that his concerns embodied patriarchal and anti-feminist
assumptions about the superiority of male-headed households. In the ensuing
years, the conventional wisdom purveyed by sociology textbooks has consistently
held up the Moynihan Report as an example of the "culture of poverty
theory," which is identified as a reactionary line of thought that
"blames the victim" of social injustice by claiming that socially
disadvantaged statuses are products of inferior cultures.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
retrospect, Moynihan deserves credit as one of the most fair-minded and
prophetic of modern social critics. The eminent sociologist William Julius Wilson
acknowledged in the insightful volume <i>When Work Disappears</i> (1996) that
Moynihan did recognize that the unstable black family was the consequence of
the American socioeconomic structure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>More recently, in a history of the Moynihan Report, the controversy over
it and its influence, from its early days to the Obama era, James T. Patterson
has argued that politicians, academics, and activists lifted quotes out of
context to make accusations against Moynihan.<a href="file:///F:/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Still%20Failing/Klein's%20article%20on%20Daniel%20Patrick%20Moynihan.docx#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a> Far from
“blaming the victim,” Moynihan simply and reasonably maintained that, having
been produced by an unequal and discriminatory economy, one-parent families
yielded unfortunate results of their own.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Since
the publication of the Moynihan report, the remarkable rise of one-parent
families in American society in general has been particularly marked among
African Americans. Figure 4.2 shows the percentages of American K-12
schoolchildren in married couple, single male, and single female households, by
race/ethnicity, according to data from the 2012 American Community Survey.
Despite the historic increase in single-parent families across demographic
categories, nearly three-quarters<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(72.3%) of white schoolchildren lived in married couple families, but
almost two-thirds of black schoolchildren (64%) lived in households headed by a
single parent, and a clear majority lived in single female-headed homes.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Figure 4.1.Percent of Births to Unmarried Mothers, by Race&
Hispanic Ethnicity, 1972-2012<o:p></o:p></p>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB6vBC5_4szZ8JrXSfABZqAeqoBrB6p846_aJbqcM1_xWl9ejqn8TWafL57rQQkzXusWwJbot3X_gfpvCinHHlgU_3YiC8Z3g61WhBEirmHP_6dMfBnITby22UODxrFhx6jEpfz_OYn8QT/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="336" data-original-width="576" height="187" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB6vBC5_4szZ8JrXSfABZqAeqoBrB6p846_aJbqcM1_xWl9ejqn8TWafL57rQQkzXusWwJbot3X_gfpvCinHHlgU_3YiC8Z3g61WhBEirmHP_6dMfBnITby22UODxrFhx6jEpfz_OYn8QT/" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br />
<p class="MsoNormal">Source:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>National
Center for Health Statistics, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vital
Statistics of the United States, 1980-2003, Vol. 1, Natality</i> (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office) ; Brady E. Hamilton, Joyce A. Martin,
Stephanie J. Ventura, Births: Preliminary Data for 2012. National Vital Statistics
Reports, Volume 62, No. 3 (Washington: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Service, 2013).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Our
research suggests that those concerned about the growth of the single-parent
family have missed some of the most serious difficulties created by change in
family structure. Families do not influence only their own children, and
children are not socialized only by their own families. Children bring
influences from their families to their peer groups and, in peer groups, share
the influences of their backgrounds with one another. Children, then, are not
simply affected by the composition of their own families; they are influenced
by the family compositions of all those around them. The undesirable
consequences of one-parent families, then, are not additive, but exponential
when those from this type of home are concentrated in a social environment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What
is the most important contemporary institution that brings young people
together, producing social environments from peer groups? The answer to this
question is obvious. It is the same institution chiefly responsible for
preparing young people to take positions in our socioeconomic structure—the
school. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Considering
the school as a social environment leads us to the following line of reasoning:
(1) black American children are much more likely than white American children
to live in single-parent families. (2) Children from single parent families
show much higher rates of behavioral and attitudinal problems than other
children do. (3) Schools with large concentrations of children from single
parent families will therefore tend to be plagued by behavioral and attitudinal
problems. (4) Schools with large concentrations of black children will tend to
be disproportionately plagued by behavioral and attitudinal problems because
these will be precisely the schools with large concentrations of children from
single parent families, and (5) Children in schools with large concentrations
of black children will therefore be faced with disadvantageous school learning
environments. These disruptive learning environments will in general lead to
lower levels of school achievement for all students in those schools,
regardless of those students' own race or family background. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
series of syllogisms indicates that prevailing family structure may be a major
barrier to achievement and upward mobility for children in majority black
schools. It also suggests that efforts by parents of all races (including
blacks) to avoid black school districts may often be motivated by the desire to
avoid less than optimal school environments caused by the predominance of
children from one parent families, and not simply motivated by irrational
prejudice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In an article published in
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Marriage and the Family</i><a href="file:///F:/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Still%20Failing/Klein's%20article%20on%20Daniel%20Patrick%20Moynihan.docx#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a>, we
found that the negative association between percentages of black students in
schools and levels of school achievement could be statistically attributed to
the prevalence of single mother-headed families in those schools. The problem
of minority schools, in other words, did not appear to be race per se. Instead,
the problem seemed to be the concentration of single parent families in those
schools.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
the percentage of black children in single parent families has grown to a
majority, racial redistribution has also become the redistribution of the
family structures that dominate schools. This can either enhance or hurt the
academics of schoolchildren. In Louisiana, where a large proportion of the
public school population lives in single parent families, teachers report that
negative student behavior is the primary reason they leave the profession.<a href="file:///F:/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Still%20Failing/Klein's%20article%20on%20Daniel%20Patrick%20Moynihan.docx#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Figure 4.2. Distribution of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Children in K-12 Grades among Family Structures, by Race &
Ethnicity, 2012<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">a. Family Structures of White School Children</p><p class="MsoNormal"> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhspeBDXCqobBXV-mbnNvqCnHP_aM2pFdM5oTkCVUvoJAY446Ca2OKkC2w81tGYaoPu3VWY8O_tokOAAAFseC0yLIWfmSYDdRu54XVGuguJD2oIv5pwraYezBBg-Erm334p87lpa963cgtI/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhspeBDXCqobBXV-mbnNvqCnHP_aM2pFdM5oTkCVUvoJAY446Ca2OKkC2w81tGYaoPu3VWY8O_tokOAAAFseC0yLIWfmSYDdRu54XVGuguJD2oIv5pwraYezBBg-Erm334p87lpa963cgtI/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBOTTa4OnpFwDnmaF5_uYoyO2WrxIjm14Jv4gCrn4pQgOqPhJ3L-5m0Ys-zY9Jyt9fVZRd-rRiJY2ftYt9yk4J80EqRlntNlDSqpSZOGZPbOabMz7R9HfKPfy7gEzR4jvedOr03vlqL6Xe/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="197" data-original-width="248" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBOTTa4OnpFwDnmaF5_uYoyO2WrxIjm14Jv4gCrn4pQgOqPhJ3L-5m0Ys-zY9Jyt9fVZRd-rRiJY2ftYt9yk4J80EqRlntNlDSqpSZOGZPbOabMz7R9HfKPfy7gEzR4jvedOr03vlqL6Xe/" width="302" /></a></div><br /><br /></div><br /><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">b. Family Structures of Black School Children</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilhh9HkRiUEBKF3buMzx4TI2FowLJDSqI6bZ8-nNBKrWiaHw7sPeIjCda8VDJNmLWgbNnE7MyT6Si6NKtjCxRruvNIkhE-dyX0yy5gBvdrvEqvweh0b_H6R6xBgmNPYFc60pSMQWmpCJGl/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="197" data-original-width="248" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilhh9HkRiUEBKF3buMzx4TI2FowLJDSqI6bZ8-nNBKrWiaHw7sPeIjCda8VDJNmLWgbNnE7MyT6Si6NKtjCxRruvNIkhE-dyX0yy5gBvdrvEqvweh0b_H6R6xBgmNPYFc60pSMQWmpCJGl/" width="302" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">c. Family Structures of Asian School Children</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgH7Ip9eG0_xxVQTFL-wVndcVrAX3SGJ3ze_-P4g4Qs4bl5zLutQCxhu6XVHkIiSXeZd0yr8MFB8SFKhFoppIzb_2LxPKZE8adV0WZb9a8rWmcJvq0Hyb_44yaM2y2vIOETRyLPM7ldu5eD/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="196" data-original-width="248" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgH7Ip9eG0_xxVQTFL-wVndcVrAX3SGJ3ze_-P4g4Qs4bl5zLutQCxhu6XVHkIiSXeZd0yr8MFB8SFKhFoppIzb_2LxPKZE8adV0WZb9a8rWmcJvq0Hyb_44yaM2y2vIOETRyLPM7ldu5eD/" width="304" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">d/ Family Structures of Hispanic School Children</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLcAab0QmKUokPR3tLMjUGdfyt3wKJDno5HC6c1gqAfu049wA_K5gp7Cxvj3o8f6sx69fLOF4UkHAmXizdr_KJsMlQYdkKP7Gsvmag-3vocvS_SMFAwGS3RINEzlmvpwLLNMhEFVetoHqA/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="197" data-original-width="248" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLcAab0QmKUokPR3tLMjUGdfyt3wKJDno5HC6c1gqAfu049wA_K5gp7Cxvj3o8f6sx69fLOF4UkHAmXizdr_KJsMlQYdkKP7Gsvmag-3vocvS_SMFAwGS3RINEzlmvpwLLNMhEFVetoHqA/" width="302" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Source: 2012 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">American
Community </i>Survey data, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Steven
Ruggles, J. Trent Alexander, Katie Genadek, Ronald Goeken, Matthew B.
Schroeder, and Matthew Sobek. <i>Integrated Public Use Microdata Series:
Version 5.0</i> [Machine-readable database] (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota,
2014).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 0in .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in 2.5in 3.0in 3.5in 4.0in 4.5in 5.0in 5.5in 6.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;"><!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="file:///F:/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Still%20Failing/Klein's%20article%20on%20Daniel%20Patrick%20Moynihan.docx#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
James T. Patterson. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Freedom is Not
Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle Over Black Family Life –
From LBJ to Obama</i> (New York: Basic Books, 2010).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="file:///F:/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Still%20Failing/Klein's%20article%20on%20Daniel%20Patrick%20Moynihan.docx#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a>
Carl L. Bankston III & Stephen J. Caldas, “Family Structure, Schoolmates,
and the Racial Inequalities in School Achievement,” <i>Journal of Marriage and
the Family </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">60</span> (1998):
715-723.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="file:///F:/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Still%20Failing/Klein's%20article%20on%20Daniel%20Patrick%20Moynihan.docx#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Mike Hasten, “State Officials Pleased With Accountability Ranking,” <i>The
Advertiser</i>, January 7, 2004, B3.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
</div>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-37859304226340994782021-02-12T08:03:00.000-08:002021-02-12T08:03:40.405-08:00Introduction to "American Ideas of Equality: A Social History, 175-2020"<p> The following is the introduction to <i>American Ideas of Equality: A Social History, 1750-2020</i> (Cambria Press, 2021). The book is available from the publisher in inexpensive e-book and hardcover at http://www.cambriapress.com/cambriapress.cfm?template=5&bid=792</p><p></p><h1><a name="_Toc39130440"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Introduction: The Problem of Equality</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc39130440;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<h3><a name="_Toc39130441"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A Complicated Notion</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
my university classes on social stratification, I frequently ask students
whether they see “equality” as a desirable goal for a society. Inevitably, they
say that they do and they will characterize movement toward greater equality in
American society as progressive and as the way of social justice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So, I ask them, do you think that we should
all receive the same incomes or live in uniform houses?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Very few students agree to that kind of
equality, but they often do say that smaller gaps in material well-being than
we have today would be desirable, without being able to specify just how small
or great those gaps should be. Pressed, they will generally explain that the
kind of equality they really favor is a competitive inequality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Everyone should have the same chance to
obtain unequal rewards. But wouldn’t competition for jobs or offices make the
desired positions more unequal, I ask, since increasing demand raises market
value?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And wouldn’t the unequal results
tend to make future competition unequal, since more and less successful competitors,
or their children, would not be starting from the same places?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sometimes
the students will tell me that what they mean by equality is really political
equality or equality under the law. But f political equality means that every
individual has exactly the same voice in governance as every other individual,
then the attainment of this state is unlikely in most real world situations if
it is ever possible at all. Even in a small community that practices direct
democracy some people will be more engaged, more vociferous, or more persuasive
than others, so that some will have greater influence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Coalitions and selective cooperation among
some sets of people will result in differences in power to direct decision-making.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Even
in that small community, wealth, as well as persuasive ability, weighs heavily
on decision-making. Those with greater resources have more influence. In a
large and complex society, access to means of communication or ownership of
those means greatly magnifies the influence, so that formal political equality
is not only consistent with inequality of power, but the former can contribute
to the latter.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Equality
under the law faces problems of both economic and political inequality. As
Anatole France wrote, “<i>La majestueuse égalité des lois, qui interdit au
riche comme au pauvre de coucher sous les ponts, de mendier dans les rues et de
voler du pain</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">”</span> [“the law,
in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under
bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread].<a href="file:///E:/NTI/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Race%20with%20No%20Losers/American%20Ideas%20of%20Equality%20New%20Copy.docx#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
few students will tell me that for them equality means a true equality of
condition, with all individuals in the same situations. If this means that all
have the same shares in goods and resources, though, then some power must
control distribution, so that attempts to achieve and maintain economic
egalitarianism often imply concentration of political control. In Weberian
terms, control over distribution shifts inequality from Class to Party.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Other
students will say that they use the term “equality” to mean the equal
representation of members of racial, ethnic, or gender categories in desired
positions or equality of outcomes among those categories. This is a reasonable
response, given the inequities of our history. Again, though, this is a type of
unequal equality, since it would make variations in power or life chances
occurrences within these categories, instead of among them. The pursuit of what
I call “categorical equalization” in this book also entails the intensified use
of political control.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is not my intent to argue for or against any of these versions of equality in
this book. Nor do I propose to make a case for any particular brand of market
or socialist economy. Instead, my goal is to explore the ways in which the
fundamental American commitment to something called equality have evolved and
shifted over the course of the nation’s history. Although we often use this
term without reflection as if we know exactly what it means, it refers to a
protean concept that has taken different forms and received varying emphases in
different periods. The modern notion of equality among human beings is
ambiguous and involves self-contradictions and paradoxes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Social, economic, and political realities
have frequently been inconsistent with expressed ideals of equality, and
reconciling ideals with realities has entailed selective awareness.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
the following pages, I argue that the essential but troublesome American
concept of equality has been a product of interrelated historical forces.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of these is cultural transmission. No
society creates its stock of ideas entirely anew, and the past remains always
with us, although the values and images we receive from the past require
modification to fit changing circumstances. Another force is the economic and political
setting of a given period. Equality of opportunity, for example, depends on the
availability of opportunities. Political equality depends on the structure of
government. Yet a third force is communication. Ideas clearly exist in
communication, so media shape ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc39130442"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Summary of the argument</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
American nation began with debates over the nature of social and economic
equality and over the implications of equality for the establishment of
government. The break with European domination involved an ideological break
with hierarchies of inherited status, with aristocracy. Early American views of
equality, then, were founded on the independence of individuals from hierarchy.
But this very independence, some worried, might bring about a new inequality, in
the form of a “natural aristocracy.” This was an early form of the
contradiction between equality of condition and equality of opportunity. Over
the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, an ideology of
individual, self-reliant upward mobility combined with the compartmentalization
of excluded groups to enable Americans to reconcile the contradictory parts of
the national ideal of equality. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
ideology of the “self-made man,” communicated through the ubiquitous medium of
newspapers, came under pressure from a changing economic environment and
evolved over the decades, but continued to be a critical part of our system of
beliefs. In the late nineteenth century an expanding industrial economy, with
heavy immigration to fill the bottom ranks encouraged Americans to see their
society as providing perpetual opportunity for upward mobility. African
Americans, though, who provided much of the unskilled labor, particularly in
agriculture, continued to be compartmentalized. A distinction between gender-based
public and domestic spheres also continued to compartmentalize women.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In the late
twentieth century, two developments, along with the rise of mass visual media,
began to bring the contradictions in our commitment to equality to the surface.
First, the rise of the affluent society after World War II created the
expectation that upward mobility should not simply be an opportunity for all
individuals, but a reality for all members of society. Second, the recognition
that previously compartmentalized groups had been excluded stimulated demands
for promoting and subsidizing the upward mobility of the least advantaged. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In the
twenty-first century, expanding demands for categorical equality came
increasingly into conflict with inherited and more individualistic notions. The
technology-finance economy caused economic opportunities to contract even as
expectations that universal upward mobility should be the norm continued. New
electronic media gave rise to a boutique communication economy catering to
specialized identities, perceptions, and resentments. Technological change both
fostered economic concentration and stimulated the flourishing of identity
groups competing over narrowing resources in an era of fragmentation and
polarization.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Readers may
note, especially in the later chapters of the book that treat more recent
historical developments, that I offer few solutions to problems of inequality.
This is intentional. My goal is to provide a descriptive and interpretive
history of concepts of equality for the sake of understanding, not to engage in
prescribing remedies for social problems. Nevertheless, I do include some very
brief thoughts at the end about the importance of compromise in a diverse
society with differing and frequently conflicting views on the meaning of one
of its foundational principles.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Readers
should also keep in mind that this book is an effort to identify how ideas of
inequality have evolved over the course of American history. As I have observed
in the opening paragraphs, inequality is a complicated notion. My concern is
not with analyzing every kind of inequality or equality, but at exploring which
kinds have received public attention over the course of our history and why.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc39130443"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Plan of the Book</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Chapter 1 examines
equality as a foundational ideal of the early American republic. Although there
were wide regional variations in stratification at the time of the American
Revolution, the rural nature of early North America and the availability of
land for settlement and speculation encouraged the desire for independence from
England and the idea that equality was a matter of individual independence from
Old World hierarchy. The agrarian basis of this equality of independence made
advocates of urban, commercial interests suspect in the eyes of Jeffersonian
egalitarians. The reaction against hierarchy also raised an early version of
debate over the implications of individual achievement. Might the old
aristocracy of birth be replaced by a “natural aristocracy” of ability, effort,
and luck that would re-establish hierarchy? The ideal of an equality of
independence was also deeply inconsistent with the institution of slavery, an inconsistency
generally managed by compartmentalizing an entire racial category. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Chapter 2 describes
how the independent yeoman of the early years of the American republic became
the “self-made man” in the years before the Civil War. The expanding boundaries
of the nation, increasing opportunities for farm ownership and for success in
manufacturing enterprises. The chapter looks at equality and mobility in the
expanding nation through the eyes of two foreign observers, Alexis de
Tocqueville and Fanny Trollope. It explores the centrality of the image of the
self-made man in the politics of an era characterized by widening male suffrage
and by popular communication by newspapers, which became a primary way of
expressing and popularizing equality as the opportunity for individual self-creation.
The chapter ends with sections on two major contradictions of the belief in the
self-made individual: slaves and women.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Chapter 3 follows
the transformation of the concept of the self-made man during the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a time that saw the growth of major
corporations, rapid urbanization, the growth of formal organizations such as
public schools, and massive immigration. It explores the movement known as
“Progressivism” as a response to political, economic, and social centralization
and bureaucratization. In the increasingly bureaucratic setting of the time,
equality began to take on the implication of the equality of citizens before a
central, organizing state. The popularity of success literature reflected the
view that self-made men were those who could draw upon their own talents and
energies to rise in a corporate bureaucratic environment. This environment also
placed an increased emphasis on formal education as a way of fitting individuals
into a corporate environment and as a way of enabling the competition for
success. The great wave of immigration that accompanied the expanding economy
both fostered the ideal of America as the land of opportunity and it produced a
system of ethnic stratification. While racial segregation maintained African
Americans in many ways at the bottom of the stratification system, it also
provided, in ideals at least, a parallel path to self-made success, as
reflected in the popular autobiography of Booker T. Washington. Although women
were still generally compartmentalized in a separate domestic sphere, the
concept of the abstract citizen, equal in formal organizations began to
challenge gender segregation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In Chapter
4, I look at the further development of the bureaucratic society during the
time of the New Deal. I argue that one of the chief characteristics of the
bureaucratic society was the unequal equality of individuals in hierarchical
organizations, which laid the foundation for what would later become known as
“meritocracy.” The enhanced role of government in this bureaucratic society
also encouraged the development of a concept of social citizenship, which
included enhanced federal responsibilities for the welfare of citizens. The
equality of citizens lay in their claims on the benefits and resources provided
by government. Economic distribution, as measured by shares of income, became
more equal during this period, setting expectations for greater equality of
condition that would be promoted by governmental intervention and regulation,
with the equality of citizens seen in terms of consumption. The emergence of
mass media, in the form of radio, helped to absorb individuals into the social
citizenship of the bureaucratic society. Political attempts to spread benefits
and guarantees of participation and material security across broad swathes of a
national population stimulated thinking of equality in categorical terms,
largely defined by social classes. Formal education also responded to the
corporate setting, as it took on more of a role of the political shaping social
citizens. Despite the beginning of thinking about equality in terms of social
categories, political pressures continued the bracketing out of African
American citizens. The chapter ends with looking at the emergence of contested
ideas of equality during the New Deal period.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Chapter 5
describes these contested ideas as largely slipping into the background during
the boom post-World War II years, mainly the late 1940s and 1950s. Following
the war, the country enjoyed rapidly increasing levels of production and
consumption, along with a relative equalization of incomes known as “the Great
Compression.” A wider distribution of income was accompanied by structural
upward mobility, an increase in desirable, well-paid, prestigious occupations
requiring high levels of education. American society began to look like a race
that everyone had the opportunity to win, and, following a pattern established
by the New Deal, government played an active role in subsidizing these
opportunities through support for mortgages, education, and other sources of
upward mobility. In higher education, in particular, one of the consequences
was the appearance of a new “natural aristocracy,” in the form of what was now
called a “meritocracy.” At the time, though, the questions that an elite of
achievement might pose about social and economic equality, raised in the early
republic, were obscured by the increasing structural mobility, making it look
like there was “room at the top” for everyone. An undercurrent of criticism of
what appeared to be a homogenizing, conformist culture did appear, though.
Along with this critical undercurrent, the very expectation that success and
material well-being should be universally available provoked objections from
other social critics, who pointed out that some were still excluded. Faith in
the capacity of policy led these critics to argue for more active political
intervention, to bring all into the realm of abundance and opportunity.
Television contributed high consumer expectations and to national
centralization. The period saw the ideal of categorical equality, of equality
applied to groups as opposed to individuals, begin to challenge traditional
individual-level concepts. Legal challenges to racial discrimination in
schooling were initially based on meritocratic ideals of individual
opportunity, but these would also lead to efforts at categorical equalization.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Chapter 6
follows by tracing efforts at group equalization during the 1960s and early
1970s. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The era of the Civil Rights
movement placed a new focus on group equalization, drawing attention to
previously suppressed contradictions in traditional American concepts of
equality. This was the consequence of four main developments. First, the material
abundance of the postwar years had encouraged thinking of the nation’s primary
challenge as one of extending high standards of living throughout the society.
Second, mass communication promoted consumer expectations across all parts of
the society. Third, mass communication also provided a national theater for
members of groups excluded from benefits and opportunities. Fourth, the
expansion of governmental social intervention encouraged thinking about
improving standards of living in general and equalizing life chances across
categories of people as problems that could be solved by means of public
policy. The chapter gives particular attention to how the model for thinking
about equality developed by the Civil Rights movement expanded to categories beyond
race. It considers how policies of categorical equalization in employment and
education both incorporated earlier individual-level concepts of equality and
conflicted with those concepts.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The final
chapter brings the history up to the present time. In a discussion of the
economic setting, the chapter points out that by the late 1970s the trend of
general income equalization and structural upward mobility were over, even as
Americans continued to expect that life chances and opportunities should improve.
The development of an economy dominated by advanced technology and finance was
one of the most important characteristics of this setting. Centralized mass
communication gave way to the new social media that were part of the
technology-finance economy. The new social media were both centralizing and
decentralizing. In terms of ownership, knowledge-intensive and
capital-intensive promoted an oligopoly. At the same time, though, they
produced a boutique economy of communication, encouraging the splitting of the
society into interest and identity groups. This fragmentation contributed to
the growth of a form of populism in American politics. At the same time, the
narrowing of opportunities heightened the contradictions involved in trying to
subsidize upward mobility for group equalization. This narrowing of
opportunities during a time that government policies attempted to increase
opportunities for excluded groups combined with competing forms of identity
politics to reinforce partisan political polarization, as shown in voting
patterns. Competing ideas about the nature of equality and the role of
government in equalization encouraged disenchantment with the American
political system, as well as polarization. The chapter concludes by considering
how historically developed, conflicting ideas about equality had come to
reflect a polarized and fragmented society.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;"><!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin-left: 0in; text-indent: 0in;"><a href="file:///E:/NTI/My%20Files(owner-3e8d56d39)/Native/C/Documents%20and%20Settings/Owner/Templates/Start%20Menu/My%20Documents/Race%20with%20No%20Losers/American%20Ideas%20of%20Equality%20New%20Copy.docx#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Anatole
France, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Le Lys rouge </i>(Paris:
Caimann-Lévy, 1894)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>118<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
</div><br /><p></p>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-16892270890425849732019-12-17T10:22:00.002-08:002019-12-17T10:27:51.543-08:00John Rawls and the Fantasyland of Social Justice<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{99bb5b08-4786-46cb-97a7-e9983ff82994}{159}" paraid="1930039739" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The view that we can conceive of a society organized on principles of justice and then move toward making this conception </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">a</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> reality is one of the historic wellsprings of social theory. It is also, I think, fundamentally </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">mistaken. Plato’s </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Republic</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> is probably the earliest and one of the most influential examples of trying to create through reasoning a mental image of a just set of social relations. Although a marvelous work of philosophy and literature, the </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Republic</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> describes a polity that could never be realized. Perhaps even more seriously, this sketch of an ideal </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">city-state was an outline of totalitarianism. As Max Beerbohm quipped, in a couplet on Plato’s and all other utopias: “Oh, is this utopia? Well, / I beg your pardon, I thought it was hell.”</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"></span> </div>
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{99bb5b08-4786-46cb-97a7-e9983ff82994}{179}" paraid="160386554" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">A utopia can be a thought experiment, with no goal</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> bringing it into existence. When Thomas More coined the word “utopia,” he did not intend to design an alternative to the England of his day, but to fashion an imaginary land as way of thinking about his England. This was different</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, though,</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> from the utopian schemes of </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">late </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">modern social theorists, who have portrayed their imaginary worlds as</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> blueprints for building the right kind of society.</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{99bb5b08-4786-46cb-97a7-e9983ff82994}{197}" paraid="1268543526" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Of all the modern theorists of an imaginary world, none can equal Karl Marx in influence on the existing world. Marx’s speculations inspired the Communist regimes of the twentieth century</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, dictatorships that in the course of their efforts to engineer utopia became as hellish as anything that could be imagined by Max Beerbohm. More benignly, democratic socialist parties and governments grew out of versions of Marxist theory, although in their accommodation of socialism to democracy these quietly discarded </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">visions of an alternative world in favor of taxation and governmental services.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{99bb5b08-4786-46cb-97a7-e9983ff82994}{205}" paraid="760839679" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">While Plato had placed his visionary polity in the realm of pure reason, Marx found his </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in a prediction of </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">the future. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In the struggle of classes, a proletariat of growing size and intensifying impoverishment would seize the means of production from the bourgeoisie and establish an egalitarian system of social </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">and economic relations. Political philosopher Eric </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="SpellingError SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom-color: transparent; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Voegelin</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> characterized this belief that the future held an alternative world of heaven realized on earth as </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">“the </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">immanentization</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> of the eschaton,” a secular expression of Gnosticism, in which disorder and imperfection could be transcended by thought and brought into being by policy.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div>
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{99bb5b08-4786-46cb-97a7-e9983ff82994}{227}" paraid="1029377758" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">So far in history, Marx’s predictions have turned out to be completely off. Advanced capitalist societies did not experience deepening poverty leading to revolutions, but entered a period of mass production benefitting nearly all. The middle classes, barely recognized by Marx, expanded rapidly. Even over the past three decades, as relative inequality has increased by most measures in developed nations, absolute standards of living </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">have improved and are certainly far better than in Marx’s day.</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{99bb5b08-4786-46cb-97a7-e9983ff82994}{237}" paraid="416890566" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Part of the answer to the question of why Marx’s predictions were wrong is that there were many developments he did not, and perhaps could not, foresee. For example, advancements in technology and corporate organization improved productivity so that profits in a competitive environment did not depend on pushing workers to produce more and live on less. Businesses knew that they needed buyers for their products, and a proletariat with no spending power could not provide these buyers. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Shareholder owned corporations were much more complex entities than the privately owned factories of Marx’s day. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In political systems based on elections, even if power is unequally distributed and voter may be misled about their true interests, political leaders find it difficult to survive if the situation of the electorate is continually worsening.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
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<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Beneath all of the</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">se</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> possible reasons Marx’s vision d</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">id not come to fruition, though, lies one more fundamental reason: social theory is not reality, but a simplification of reality. Our theories can give us tentative descriptions of aspects of the world we live in and provide us with hypotheses that may explain specific events or relationships. A theory of a “</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="SpellingError SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom-color: transparent; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">countersystem</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">,”</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> an alternative reality created by</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> thought, is nothing more than a fantasy.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{8}" paraid="1202734620" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The Alternative</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: bold; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> World of John Rawls</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div>
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{16}" paraid="1146466164" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">John Rawls was</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> perhaps the most important political philosopher since the mid-twentieth century and certainly the most influential figure in shaping cont</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">emporary ideas of social justice. I’ve suggested </span></span><a class="Hyperlink SCXW164919479 BCX0" href="https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_15_02_01_bankston.pdf" rel="noreferrer" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; color: inherit; cursor: text; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; user-select: text;" target="_blank"><span class="TextRun Underlined SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="none" lang="EN-US" style="color: #0563c1; font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: underline;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-charstyle="Hyperlink" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in a previous article</span></span></a><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in another publication that “[s]</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="SpellingError SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom-color: transparent; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ome</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> version of his theory can arguably be found in most uses of the term social justice, even on the lips of those who have never read him.” Rawls</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> was not a Marxist. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">He did not engage in class analysis or favor the seizure of the means of production by the working class. In some respects, Rawls was more similar to Plato than to Marx, since the twentieth century philosopher concentrated on how to define justice and not on instigating social movements. But Rawls shared with both Plato and Marx the imagination of an alternative world.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{37}" paraid="1740727576" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In his 1971 book, </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">A Theory of Justice</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, Rawls attempted to define justice by looking at what kind of society would be characterized as just. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">He argued that justice should be seen as a question of the fairness of the organization of a society and of its internal divisions. To address what would be a fair kind of social organization, he adopted a classical hypothetical ploy from social contract theory. He posited an original state of nature, outside of society, in which all are equal individuals. He did not suggest that any such original state had ever existed. This was a thought experiment, but not one that would simply serve the purpose of social criticism as More’s utopia had, but as a basis for guiding action and policies.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{47}" paraid="1414895203" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In the best-known part of the book, Rawls employs a “veil of ignorance” to approach how we might look at our own society from the perspective of a fictional original state of nature. If we existed outside of any society and were going to enter into one, and we did not know what places we would occupy, what kind of social organization would we rationally choose? Rawls claimed that our choice would be for the social structure that would benefit each of us most if we happened to land in the least desirable position. Achieving a just society, then, would mean moving toward one that bestows the greatest possible benefits on </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">its least advantaged members.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{53}" paraid="18412849" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The Rawlsian approach has a clear bias toward redistribution, since inequality is only acceptable to the extent that benefits those at the bottom. It is not, however, necessarily a prescription for socialism. If some form of capitalism yields greater rewards to its most deprived citizens, then that is the most just society.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div>
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{57}" paraid="1268234385" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">On inspection, this positional approach to justice seems to have some odd implications. In the traditional, Aristotelian concept of justice, justice is a matter of individuals getting what they deserve. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">A just society is one that rewards good actions and punishes bad ones. But there is no room for asking what individuals deserve as a consequence of their virtues or actions in the Rawlsian version. It does not matter if you are at the bottom of the society because of laziness, lack of ability, bad luck,</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> family background,</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> or mistreatment by others. Justice depends on how you are treated simply because of where you are.</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{69}" paraid="2035132960" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">While Rawls did at times voice support for equality of opportunity, he was notably ambivalent about the justice of rewarding individual talents that enable people to make use of opportunities. Behind that veil of ignorance, you do not know whether you will come into a society with intelligence, athletic ability, or interpersonal skills. Even more seriously, your skills and talents </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">will probably not be entirely innate, but will be developed as a consequence of where you land in the social organization.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{75}" paraid="659061577" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">This problem of making </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">personal </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">virtue irrelevant </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">to justice </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">should make us suspicious of the claim that any rational person, existing behind the veil of ignorance, would </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">choose to favor the least advantaged simply because they are the least advantaged. Because the state of nature is purely imaginary, </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">we have no way of knowing whether it would be most rational to minimize our risks, maximize our possibilities, or base what we might choose on the kinds of people we might be after stepping through the veil.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{91}" paraid="2020167935" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The choice that Rawls thought</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> he and any other rational person would make has the consequence of turning whomever is judged to be at the bottom of a social order into the only individual or group of </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">individuals who matters in measuring the fairness of the order. This makes the interests of all others irrelevant, except insofar as they happen to coincide with the well-being of the most disadvantaged.</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> Who are these people who serve as the metric of fairness for everyone else? While Rawls made relatively little reference to social categories such as the holy trinity of race, class, and gender, removing all identifiable individual characteristics through the heuristic veil of ignorance effectively </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">reduces people to social positions, so that categories considered disadvantaged become a convenient way to define who will be considered the sole measurement of the extent to which a society approaches the id</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">eal. This emphasis on relative</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> disadvantage also lends itself to thinking about the categories in terms of oppression and victimization. Rawlsian social justice leads directly to a cult of victimhood.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{107}" paraid="2038876089" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The alternative reality Rawls proposed, the just society found by reflecting on what kind of world a Harvard professor would choose if he did not know that he would have the good fortune to become a Harvard professor, entailed ignoring human societies as complex, dynamic webs of institutions and relationships that develop and change over the course of history. Instead, an imagined world would </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">serve as the moral pattern for the real world.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{113}" paraid="1784580195" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The most fundamental problem with this </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="SpellingError SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom-color: transparent; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">countersystem</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> perspective goes beyond the delusion that we can judge reality by the standards of fiction. The just society found behind the veil of ignorance is a totality. Efforts at social reform are not attempts to change specific laws or practices</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> that conflict with our ideas of fairness</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, but to reorganize the entire society </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">according to a single moral pattern. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In the ideal model of a society considered as just, there is no room for moral pluralism. </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{129}" paraid="2120464013" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Pluralism means that a nation or a community consists of many different, often competing goods and interests. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">The political thinker Isaiah Berlin described this pluralism of values and goals as “incommensurability.” Individual freedom from political control and pursuit of economic equality, for example, often exist in opposition. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> When parents invest in maximizing the educational opportunities of </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">their own children, they necessarily promote the competitive positions of their children</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> beyond those of children in families less able to make investments.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{141}" paraid="1221744972" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Precisely because we have so many different individuals and groups pursuing varied interests</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, there is no overall pattern of a just ordering. Bringing social relations into conformity with a moral blueprint entails dedication to control and coordination. This poses practical problems because people tend to stubbornly pursue their own interests, whether or not those advance the cause of disadvantaged categories, even when they genuinely accept a social justice ideology. But it also produces a culture of conformity and intolerance.</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div>
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{149}" paraid="993104598" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In the contemporary version of Rawlsian social justice, those who claim to speak for “the marginalized” make claims to absolute moral authority aimed at re-ordering the whole of the society. Those who disagree with them or who fail to fall into the ideological line of formation cannot be seen as having a different set of legitimate goals or even as simply being mistaken. Any deviation from the cause of the redesigning society for the sake of the disadva</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ntaged categories is injustice. </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span><br />
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<div class="OutlineElement Ltr BCX0 SCXW164919479" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; color: black; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", "Segoe UI Web", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; user-select: text; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="Paragraph SCXW164919479 BCX0" paraeid="{67ed1403-894d-42ab-9a70-0af04709a21a}{155}" paraid="702862099" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Because societies are not drawn up from the blueprints of planners but evolve from the complex interrelationships of people over their histories, the abstraction of a “just society” can never fit reality. </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">It is a bit like the floating island of </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Laputa</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> in </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Gulliver’s Travels</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-contrast="auto" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW164919479 BCX0" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, in which clothes are made according to the geometry of abstract thought and therefore never fit their wearers. The difference is that the social justice tailor aims to cut the wearer to suit the apparel.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW164919479 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "calibri" , "calibri_msfontservice" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div>
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Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-90457122805077656862014-12-16T08:08:00.003-08:002014-12-16T08:08:37.200-08:00The Sphinx: Franklin Roosevelt, the Isolationists, and the Road to World War II, by Nicholas Wapshott<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5bhkPisCwjgtfxXvrMi1AYq4pqqnGHW_EcaJlX7XW_NMe2u-wf4OUT-G8_gpE5qUH_FL-yyKZpKGSB5BsNgnFJz3G6utXPerOVZ44OCug43K770mfLfOkKo61BweOGo04KdO7Qn3YTAT7/s1600/Sphinx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5bhkPisCwjgtfxXvrMi1AYq4pqqnGHW_EcaJlX7XW_NMe2u-wf4OUT-G8_gpE5qUH_FL-yyKZpKGSB5BsNgnFJz3G6utXPerOVZ44OCug43K770mfLfOkKo61BweOGo04KdO7Qn3YTAT7/s1600/Sphinx.jpg" /></a>The complicated strategic struggle between President
Franklin D. Roosevelt and those who believed the United States could and should
stay out of World War II has been repeatedly explored, mostly through works extolling
the wisdom and foresight of the president.
The hagiographic interpretations frequently depend on attributing to the
president intentions that he may not have had. Since FDR generally operated
with maximal ambiguity, these post hoc attributions are easy to make and hard
to rebut. FDR's public assurances that
he would not lead the nation into war are generally interpreted as clever
stratagems of a prescient leader who understood that the American people needed
to be led gently toward an inevitable war, while his private assurances to
Churchill that America would come into the conflict are taken as statements of
his true vision. Historians rarely consider the possibility that the pragmatic
and duplicitous president may have simply been telling all sides what they wanted
to hear, while he himself was pulled along by events.</div>
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The title of <a href="http://books.wwnorton.com/books/The-Sphinx/"> Nicholas Wapshott's book</a> reflects the problem of understanding
Roosevelt. As the 1940 election approached, the organization of White House
correspondents, the Gridiron Club, commissioned a papier-mâché sculpture of the
president in the form of the Egyptian sphinx because of the mystery about
whether he would run for a third-term. Wapshott takes this as emblematic of all
of Roosevelt's dealings.</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsgSaKyWpea7bAPg-k_eGVIBbqxGVy208CW2IR1FqX26_Y0IL6XZEFkTVilmMHQbgWCQ9aloy0AGOUUXcbO1Z7MZCIeWCLRB8KRze8biiW54hzCqZYkg_72wZntO_xRD_oRmrsnLQbmAkz/s1600/Roosevelt+as+Sphinx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsgSaKyWpea7bAPg-k_eGVIBbqxGVy208CW2IR1FqX26_Y0IL6XZEFkTVilmMHQbgWCQ9aloy0AGOUUXcbO1Z7MZCIeWCLRB8KRze8biiW54hzCqZYkg_72wZntO_xRD_oRmrsnLQbmAkz/s1600/Roosevelt+as+Sphinx.jpg" height="320" width="235" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Roosevelt as Sphinx (from the Collections of the FDR Library and Museum</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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While earlier books, such as Wayne Cole's 1983 <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Roosevelt-Isolationists-1932-45-Wayne-Cole/dp/0803214103">Roosevelt and the Isolationists</a></i>, have concentrated on FDR's relations with
members of Congress, Wapshott shapes much of the book around two
non-Congressional opponents of American
intervention: Joseph Kennedy and Charles
Lindbergh. In Wapshott's account, Roosevelt had Kennedy appointed Ambassador to
Britain in order to get the Irish American tycoon, who had his own presidential
ambitions for 1940, out of the country. Lindbergh, also served the American
government, having initially gone to Germany on the request of US officials to
judge German military air capacities. I
have some questions about Wapshott's attention to Kennedy, who had little
influence on American foreign policy, in spite of his prestigious
appointment. This lack of influence may
have been due to Roosevelt's cleverness in sidelining Kennedy, as Wapshott
suggests, but it may also have been because Kennedy was never as politically
astute as he believed himself to be. By all accounts, Lindbergh was an
important figure in the struggle against intervention. Some of the best parts of the book dealt with
this tragic figure, a man duped and used by the Nazis, celebrated and vilified
by his own countrymen, and possessing stalwart courage and personal integrity
along with tunnel vision and dubious judgment.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The developments described by this book raise
some difficult questions. If Roosevelt
did engage in double-dealing in order to prepare the nation for war, what does
this mean about democratic leadership? Does good leadership entail misleading
people for their own good? Can we trace the imperial presidency that <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Imperial-Presidency-Jr-Arthur-Schlesinger/dp/0618420010/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1418745973&sr=1-1&keywords=imperial+presidency">ArthurSchlesinger identified as growing mostly during the Nixon administration </a>back much earlier, to the
time of Lend-Lease and Roosevelt's extensions of executive power? </span>Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-77302449500429299502014-12-01T13:01:00.001-08:002019-08-24T13:06:57.183-07:00Reflections on the Revolt in Ferguson<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjahHE37HuUSlmCwQ_r_Bb2YhtPVmyuc8il70_uhhvI1Rtrj_KsyIBnNRXUbp1Ovg_LPTwitO2NANYTia4tPDQV7upkoyhID3ZmqqUBnKIEPmQVC_d3YapTPRW9dpSsl66c7wVv-jF31U0I/s1600/ferguson.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjahHE37HuUSlmCwQ_r_Bb2YhtPVmyuc8il70_uhhvI1Rtrj_KsyIBnNRXUbp1Ovg_LPTwitO2NANYTia4tPDQV7upkoyhID3ZmqqUBnKIEPmQVC_d3YapTPRW9dpSsl66c7wVv-jF31U0I/s1600/ferguson.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The protests over the August shooting in Ferguson, Missouri
have become the subject of national and international attention. Rather than
set the controversy over this tragic incident to rest, the grand jury decision
that the evidence did not warrant indicting former police Officer Darren Wilson
has itself incited further outcries, demonstrations, and riots. Those protesting have had two interconnected
levels of concern. The first is their belief that in this particular case the
officer gunned down a young man without cause (or without sufficient cause).
The second level is the perception that this one case is part of a broader
pattern of police profiling and mistreatment of black men.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Regarding the particular incident in question, the available
facts indicate that the grand jury made the correct decision. The officer's
account was coherent, while claims that he simply murdered Michael Brown were
mutually contradictory. In some cases, the "eyewitnesses" confessed
to giving false testimony and to making up their assertions. Most importantly,
the forensic evidence supported a key part of the police officer's version of
the events, substantiating his claim that Michael Brown had attempted to grab
the officer's gun. It is not completely clear what happened after that, or that
Officer Wilson's only option was to fire multiple shots into the young man. But the argument that maybe the officer could
have avoided killing the young man is not strong enough to justify a trial. It
certainly does not justify angry shouts that the grand jury's reasonable
decision was "unjust" or crowd demands that the police officer must
be indicted and then imprisoned. But many people have already committed
themselves to the image of Michael Brown as a martyr for civil rights.
Presented with facts that do not fit this narrative, they seek to reject the
facts as manufactured or manipulated by a scheming prosecutor or a judicial
system intent on exonerating a murdering police officer.</div>
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<br /></div>
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It is true, though, that the police do concentrate their
enforcement efforts disproportionately on lower-income minority neighborhoods
and that the police are much more likely to stop blacks, especially black men,
than they are to stop whites. The police often do tend to treat those
neighborhoods as occupied territory in a war, rather than as the communities of
citizens to be served and protected. The black men they stop are not only those
guilty of crimes, but also innocent and respectable individuals.
Understandably, this provokes resentment.
But why does this pattern exist?
To attribute it to a bad "system," as some of the protesters
do, is to say nothing at all.</div>
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Anyone who has a chance to have candid conversations with
taxi cab drivers will get some insight into the causes of conscious and
unconscious racial profiling. I have talked with drivers who have frankly
admitted that they will not pick up any young black men and that they are
cautious about picking up black men in general. The cab drivers also say that
they try to avoid calls to pick up passengers in black neighborhoods. This discriminatory behavior is not due to
prejudice. The cab drivers do not want
to be robbed or shot. Unfortunately but realistically, the best way to avoid
being robbed and shot is not to go into lower-income black neighborhoods or to
pick up black men. While black men
constitute only about 6 percent of the total US population, they commit most of
the nation's murders. Although most murders by whites or blacks involve victims
of their own races, the overwhelming majority of interracial murders are black
on white. Other violent crimes also show
racial disproportions, and, accordingly,
minority neighborhoods frequently have remarkably high crime rates. This
disturbing situation can be verified by consulting the FBI's Uniform Crime
Reports, the National Crime Victimization Survey, or simply by reading local
and national newspapers.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As a general rule, if cab drivers will not stop for you, the
police will. The high crime rates among black men lead policemen, regardless of
race, to associate black men with crime and, in many contexts, to treat young
black men in particular with suspicion.
Just as the cab driver may not stop for the fellow on his way to work or
to volunteer with a charity organization, the police may indeed stop
irreproachable individuals, as well as gang members or muggers. Because violent crime occurs so much more
often in economically disadvantaged black neighborhoods, the police focus on
these locations. If law enforcement acts like an army of occupation in a war,
this is frequently because the neighborhoods often have the characteristics of
war zones, including, even, children dying in the crossfire of automatic
weapons in the hands of fellow residents.
The more that police interact with any group of people, the more likely
it is that they will be on the receiving end of all kinds of police treatment,
both justified and unjustified.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It may well be that the police strategies could be more
effective than they have been. Community policing, with officers establishing
personal connections with residents, could help. The police can never be too
well trained. There are, of course, bad policemen - <i>quis custodiet custodes</i> is a perennial problem. Police
departments do need effective and responsive ways to investigate and punish
those in their ranks who violate the rights of citizens. But we should not
forget that the heart of the problem is the social disorder with which the police are dealing, fairly or
unfairly, effectively or ineffectively.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The issue of why social order has disintegrated so much in
minority neighborhoods is more complicated than I can deal with here. It is not
just a heritage of historical discrimination because that has existed for a
long time and is much less today than in the past. It is not just poverty,
because the violence is now greater than it was when the poverty was more
intense. The fact that nearly 70 percent of black children have been born out
of wedlock in recent years is undoubtedly part of the problem, although the
extent to which it is a cause or a symptom of disorder is open to question.</div>
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<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Ferguson revolt itself (which has spread to other
locations) can be taken as part of this larger problem of social order. While
people do have the right to peaceful assembly and to express any opinions they may
hold, no one has any right to block traffic, impede entry to stores, loot and
burn businesses, or smash and overturn cars. We can try to de-militarize the police and we
can try to move the police away from behaving as an occupying army. But not
while people are turning parts of the nation into a battlefield.</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-41733375380855977512014-11-29T12:12:00.000-08:002014-11-29T12:12:20.645-08:00Political Order and Political Decay, by Francis Fukuyama<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgf8ZmeP56yoRbhxlF0sftiuTtOx4LixfxNqbK3JKjonrfZE7EKupBpv_vMErYWb1hSornYD61NVfQ2JSmMx5sSWWMWNARHOB0i2PEb6QTrWLKg3enssO-8S-Xz5HhXnx8dKUDlogP0Zapu/s1600/political+order+&+decay.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgf8ZmeP56yoRbhxlF0sftiuTtOx4LixfxNqbK3JKjonrfZE7EKupBpv_vMErYWb1hSornYD61NVfQ2JSmMx5sSWWMWNARHOB0i2PEb6QTrWLKg3enssO-8S-Xz5HhXnx8dKUDlogP0Zapu/s1600/political+order+&+decay.jpg" /></a><i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Political-Order-Decay-Industrial-Globalization/dp/1491584874">Political Order andPolitical Decay</a></i> is the second volume in Francis Fukyama’s effort to account
for the nature and functioning of political systems (for my review of the first
volume, <a href="http://cantheseboneslive.blogspot.com/2012/03/origins-of-political-order-by-francis.html">see
here</a>). Despite the subtitle, it is less a history of modern political order
than an attempt to theorize why political institutions work and don’t work.
Fukuyama posits three dimensions of political order: the strength of the state,
the rule, and the accountability of government to the governed. Three major
categories of social influences shape these dimensions and the interactions
among them. These are economic growth, social mobilization, and political ideas
and legitimacy.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Behind the growth of the state lies a characteristic of
human nature, the tendency of human beings to cooperate based on kinship and
reciprocity. The evolution of political order entails moving away from service
to oneself and one’s own, from patrimonial government to impersonal systems of
authority. Viewing political progress in
this way places Fukuyama within the tradition of Max Weber: bureaucracy does
not have the negative implications that it does in much common usage, but is a
rational and goal-directed organization of behavior. Fukuyama’s contributions to this Weberian
perspective might lie in his attention to the dimension of accountability, of
the explicit recognition that bureaucracies can be evaluated by how well they
serve some set of public interests, and in his observation that states and
their bureaucracies can only be accountable to the extent that they are subject
to laws as well as carry out laws.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fukuyama sees political order as a balance among his three
dimensions. In the first volume, he described Chinese imperial governance as an
early well-developed state that ruled by law but that was not itself under the
law, and in this second book he traces that heritage to the challenges of
modern China, which retains a strong state, but is not yet fully accountable to
its population. Nevertheless, China
recovered from the colonial challenge of the West because it retained an ingrained
political order. Other Asian nations that originally emerged under Chinese
influence were also fairly successful in responding to Western pressures,
especially Japan, which was able to integrate a strong state with political
influences from Europe and America. By contrast, the nations of Africa have
been notably unsuccessful because no cohesive state existed in them before the
Europeans disrupted the Africans’ largely tribal organizations without creating
deep-rooted and widely-accepted patterns of authority. Western colonialism was
generally more successful in the Americas, especially where settler populations
largely replaced pre-existing ones. The Americas, however, had varying
outcomes, in Fukuyama’s view because their histories resulted from combinations
of different European legacies, unique geographical and social contexts, and
decisions of policy-makers.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Fukuyama is less appreciative of the early political history
of the United States than are many other historical commentators. He views the
extension of male suffrage in this country in the nineteenth century as the
growth of democratic accountability before the emergence of a strong central
state, producing clientelism. This perspective leads him to an enthusiastic appraisal
of Progressive Era reforms, such as the civil service and unaccountable federal
bureaucracies, which he presents as professionally dedicated to national-well
being. He sees the governmental stalemates of the present as the consequence of
the recapture of government by a multitude of special interests, creating a “vetocracy”
of pressure groups that push the bureaucracies in different directions and
prevent a strong, professionalized government from operating autonomously.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I was less impressed with this second book than with the
first. This one does incorporate a wide range of information, but sometimes too
much, so that it seems like Fukuyama was trying to work in whatever he happened
to be reading at the time of writing. While the three dimensions of political
order did offer a useful way of conceptualizing at the most abstract level, there
were so many elements within the three kinds of influences that the schema
often appeared to explain everything and nothing. When discussing why Costa
Rica has been a successful nation since the middle of the twentieth century and
Argentina has been much less successful, for example, Fukuyama is left telling
us that Costa Rican politicians made good decisions and those of Argentina bad
ones. That may well be so, but it is not much of an explanation.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The latter-day Progressivism embraced by the author ignores
the New Class argument that self-controlling state bureaucracies do not necessarily
serve some objective pubic good, but are themselves political actors. Even when agency officials do not seek to
benefit their own kin and allies, the dedication to organizational interests
often forms a tribal commitment. In his enthusiasm for the autonomous,
non-patrimonial state, Fukuyama overlooks the point that governments and
government agencies are not just more or less accountable to their populations:
the authorities are self-promoting parts of the population. They may be all the more dangerous precisely because
they do not see their agencies as pursuing narrow self-interest, but as
enlightened rulers who have the expertise to decide what is good for everyone. When
bureaucratic progressivism produces sections of the population who can set
themselves up as experts on how everyone should live and what everyone should
think “accountability” shifts its
meaning from representatives being accountable to an electorate to social
technicians obtaining public assent to the technicians’ designs for a shared
future. </div>
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<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
I am not sure, then, that the impasses in US political life
today are necessarily due to a “vetocracy” that impedes the salubrious
decision-making of an active central government. Rather, I think it is because a highly
centralized American state has brought together groups within our population
who have vastly different and even opposing ideas about what would constitute
the general good on the major issues of the day. If autonomous agencies would
have the power to make the decisions, the bureaucratic power would not make
those decisions any less partisan.</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-60337104541753242332014-11-22T13:15:00.000-08:002014-11-22T13:15:53.940-08:00Why Didn't School Desegregation Work: The Case of New York City<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">In recent posts, I’ve been looking at school desegregation
histories in districts around the nation, considering the question of why
attempts to redistribute students by race did not produce truly desegregated
schools or equalize educational outcomes. In fact, the evidence indicates that
top-down, coercive programs of redistributing students actually made things
worse.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These case histories
are based on greatly updated and revised passages from my book with Stephen J.
Caldas, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Forced-Fail-Paradox-School-Desegregation/dp/1578866146"><span style="color: blue;">Forced
to Fail: The Paradox of School Desegregation</span></a></i>. I’ll end today with the
nation’s largest city, New York.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">New York City<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq-iuKEq2UUsnZSpNT6oR6MnvLxVIs2xAYYHOuTSuWacK9L6e5bLy4HzJeijOUZxDMuFUTwoy6zjSy6a4rLBJIASYc2aUJEn6LgpgrckKRM8-dTLPPMIgYNPMAmyxxCQWbz8FDS0I_PVm9/s1600/New+York+Schools.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq-iuKEq2UUsnZSpNT6oR6MnvLxVIs2xAYYHOuTSuWacK9L6e5bLy4HzJeijOUZxDMuFUTwoy6zjSy6a4rLBJIASYc2aUJEn6LgpgrckKRM8-dTLPPMIgYNPMAmyxxCQWbz8FDS0I_PVm9/s1600/New+York+Schools.jpg" height="197" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Southern political
leaders accused northerners of hypocrisy for vigorously pursuing desegregation
in the South, while schools and other institutions continued to be segregated
in the north. In the nation’s largest urban center, New York, schools were
generally identifiable by race. The four boroughs of Bronx, Manhattan,
Brooklyn, and Queens, held roughly 600 public elementary schools in 1970, and
half of these were either 90 percent or more white or 90 percent or more black.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[i]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Lending support to Southern accusations, a New York state
anti-busing law, passed by the state legislature in May 1969, sought to avoid
judicially mandated racial balancing by specifying that only elected school
boards could assign students to schools. The New York law, held
unconstitutional by a Federal court in October 1970, was widely copied by
Southern school districts as a strategy for avoiding desegregation.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[ii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The New York City boroughs made some efforts on their own to
achieve racial integration through busing and school re-zoning. These resulted
in a number of conflicts. Responding to a plan by the Board of Education of
Queens to re-zone schools for more even racial combinations, the president of the
Martin Van Buren High School P.T.A. declared, “They’re talking about integrated
schools. Well, they’re going to have segregated schools. Because people will
move out, that’s all. Or put their children in private schools or parochial
schools.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[iii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">In the spring of 1971, episodes of violence broke out
between black and white students at South Shore High School in Brooklyn.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn4" name="_ednref4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[iv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> A
mother and father of a public school student, who had fled the Soviet Union a
few years earlier, complained about the treatment received by their son in a
newly integrated school:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Each school year he [the son] received certificates for his
achievements ... This year, after attending school for two days in the sixth
grade, he refused to go any longer. For participating actively in class, he has
been called “Jewish faggot” and shot at with paper clips from catapults by his
black classmates, because he “knows everything”... No teacher can start
anything with students of such different ranges ... They [the black students]
scatter the free lunches, preferring to extort food more to their taste - and
money too - from their white classmates who are a minority and defenseless.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn5" name="_ednref5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[v]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The parents’ characterizations of their son’s black
classmates were probably unfair generalizations from the behavior of a few, and
one should be cautious about taking such reports at face value. The conflicts
at South Shore certainly involved members of both racial groups and could have
been sparked by white hostility. Still, these events testify to the disruptions
of New York’s efforts at student redistribution, and concerns about the
difficulties of teaching students with a wide range of preparation were well
founded.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The earliest federal actions in New York were limited in
scope. In January 1974, Judge Jack B. Weinstein directed the city’s Board of
Education to devise a re-zoning plan to integrate Brooklyn’s Mark Twain Junior
High. Four months later, Judge John F. Dooling Jr. criticized the Board for
allowing racial imbalances, and he ordered the members to redraw the boundaries
of Franklin K. Lane School, also in Brooklyn, which was attended mainly by
black and Puerto Rican students. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">A local resident of the Lane school district agreed with the
judge’s decision, remarking that “Over the years the Board has gerrymandered our
area into an all-black school district.” At the same time, though, the same man
also observed that “the whites who got zoned in [to the Lane district] stopped
sending their children to Franklin K. Lane and either sent them to Catholic
schools or got addresses so they could qualify for other districts.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn6" name="_ednref6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[vi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> He
did not, apparently, consider the possibility that re-zoning would produce a
rapid increase in false addresses and Catholic school applications.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Officials recognized the problem of segregated housing patterns.
Judge Weinstein tried to tie the desegregation of Mark Twain Junior High to an
effort to bring more whites into nearby housing projects. The Board of
Education raised the possibility of reaching into the suburbs for whites.
“Given shifting population patterns - the movement of the middle class to the
suburbs - and the declining number of ‘others’ [whites] in the city’s public
schools,” declared the Board in a report to the State Board of Regents, “the
task of achieving meaningful integration within the boundaries of New York City
or other large cities becomes increasingly difficult.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn7" name="_ednref7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[vii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Over the following years, desegregation in New York City
proceeded largely on a school-by-school basis. To create greater racial
diversity at virtually all-black Andrew Jackson High School in Brooklyn, for
example, beginning in 1976 the Board of Education set up a special “choice of
admissions” zone to encourage white enrollments and move black students
elsewhere. The zone plan gave black children who would otherwise go to Jackson
the option of selecting any schools in the city with white enrollments of
greater than fifty percent (commonly referred to as “majority to minority”
transfers). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">At the same time, white students within the zone were
required to enroll in majority black schools, limiting their choices of
admissions. White students and their families were not cooperating with the
plan. The <i>New York Times</i> reported that “many white students in these
zones have chosen to attend private or parochial schools in the city or
elsewhere.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn8" name="_ednref8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[viii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
The existence of other options for white students frustrated centralized
planning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Federal District Judge John Dooling recognized that the zone
plan was not working at Jackson. Judge Dooling ordered the district to come up
with another one in 1979. An appeals court overturned the judge’s decision,
though, on the grounds that Jackson and other city schools were becoming all
minority because of changing demographics and residential patterns, not because
of intentional actions by school officials. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">An editorial writer, at that time, argued that the real
problem was white flight to suburban areas. Therefore, New York should pursue a
metropolitan solution, reaching into places such as nearly all-white Nassau
County. The writer did not say how those pulled in from the suburbs could be
restrained from doing precisely what the generally less economically advantaged
whites within the city were already doing: leaving the public system.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn9" name="_ednref9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn9;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[ix]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Meanwhile, the school boards of New York tried to engage in
desperate juggling maneuvers to keep schools as integrated as possible, avoid
overcrowding, and keep whites, who made up only 30% of New York students at the
end of the 1970s, from fleeing the area. To relieve enrollment pressures on
Intermediate School 231, and to minimize white flight, in 1978 the Queens
school board created a new school, drawing students from the mixed-race, middle
class neighborhood of Rosedale. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Rosedale had already been losing white residents, but the
creation of a new, more middle class school helped to slow down their
departure. The president of the school board in school district 29 of Queens,
Dolores Grant, explained that “white students were fleeing. That was a fact of
life. It was not hearsay. The annex [the new school] helped turn that around.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn10" name="_ednref10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn10;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[x]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
Federal authorities would have none of the explanations of the Queens school
board. On August 29, 1979, the Federal Office for Civil Rights gave the board
30 days to desegregate I.S. 231 or lose $3.5 million in federal education
funds.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn11" name="_ednref11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn11;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The redistribution of white students from the mostly white
Rosedale annex of I.S. 231 to the mostly black I.S. 231 provoked what may have
been New York City’s greatest desegregation controversy. During the summer of
1980, New York City Public School Chancellor Frank J. Macchiarola, pushed by
the threat of losing funds, ordered that 450 seventh and eighth graders be
transferred from the mostly white annex to the predominantly black main school.
The transfer would result in white students becoming a minority of 15% in their
new school. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In taking this
action, the chancellor overrode the authority of local school board 29. The
president of the local school board, Joseph Albergo, answered by saying that
the transfers would result in over-crowding, as well as racial tensions. “No
parent in his right mind will send his child to that school, especially under
these conditions.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn12" name="_ednref12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn12;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
Ironically, the annex was one of the city’s more integrated schools, since it
contained about 40 black and 330 white children, while many of New York’s
schools consisted solely of minority students.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn13" name="_ednref13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xiii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
An editorial writer at the time observed that:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The loss of more white students
would make district 29 resemble more closely the many community school
districts in New York City in which meaningful integration is no longer
possible because of<u> a</u> dwindling white enrollment in the public schools,
which citywide are now less than one-third white. Meanwhile, parochial and other
private schools in the five boroughs, which have a combined enrollment of
312,647 are two-thirds white.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn14" name="_ednref14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xiv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The battle over the Rosedale annex took place in the courts
and out. Parents of students in the annex, which was located within the mostly
white P.S. 138 elementary school of Rosedale, sought to appeal the chancellor’s
order to the court, only to have the appeal dismissed early in 1981.
Macchiarola came under additional pressure from the federal government, when,
at about the same time as the dismissal of the appeal, the Federal Office of
Civil Rights declared that the annex was illegal because it had resulted in the
segregation of the main school. Angry parents in majority white Rosedale
declared a boycott of majority black I.S. 231.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn15" name="_ednref15" style="mso-endnote-id: edn15;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The parents of students at the forbidden annex occupied the
building and staged sit-ins. New York Mayor Koch barred their eviction,
expressing some sympathy for the protestors and seeking a peaceful resolution
to the problem. People in the neighborhood claimed that the closing of their
local middle school and the transfer of their children to another neighborhood
constituted a fatal assault on their community. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Joseph Albergo, the fiery school board head, declared,
“They’re [the Federal authorities and the city government] the ones doing the
segregating. All these billions of dollars haven’t done a thing, but our
community became naturally integrated, and they want to destroy it.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn16" name="_ednref16" style="mso-endnote-id: edn16;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xvi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">During the first week of February 1981, police officers
swooped down on the Rosedale annex, evicted protestors, and arrested the few
who refused to leave. As word of the evictions spread through the community,
about 250 demonstrators gathered in front of the school with homemade signs.
Local parents declared that they would continue their boycott, and refuse to
send their children to I.S. 231.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn17" name="_ednref17" style="mso-endnote-id: edn17;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xvii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
New York’s Mayor Koch and Chancellor Macchiarola both criticized the protesting
parents for their disregard of the law, believing that the protests had gone
beyond disagreement with policy and turned into defiance of civic order.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Many black parents and several black officials were offended
at the unwillingness of the Rosedale inhabitants to send their children to a
school where whites would be a small minority and insisted that the Rosedale parents
should follow policies established by the city and the federal government. Dr.
Shirley Rose, a black school board member, declared that, “If they feel that
the public school system cannot satisfy their needs they have the right to go
to private schools.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn18" name="_ednref18" style="mso-endnote-id: edn18;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xviii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
Responding to Dr. Rose, an assistant principal at Benjamin Cardozo high school
observed:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Unfortunately that [white, middle
class movement to private schools] is precisely what will happen. At a time
when pressure is being put on Congress to pass laws that will bring about a
voucher system and/or tax tuition credits, public education needs all the
friends it can get. What is happening in Rosedale is hastening the demise of
the public schools. The middle class is being told it is not wanted. How can any
system of public education function without the support of the backbone of its
community?</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn19" name="_ednref19" style="mso-endnote-id: edn19;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xix]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The people of the Rosedale neighborhood defended their
protest marches and sit-ins as desperate measures, intended to save a community
centered on its schools. Rosedale was a small, working class enclave,
surrounded by poverty and urban deterioration. Mrs. Sandra Petker, an active
PTA member, explained that, “closing the annex would be the beginning of the
end, absolutely. Whites have been staying in Rosedale because of the schools.
If the community starts moving because of the closed annex, I’d have to move
too.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn20" name="_ednref20" style="mso-endnote-id: edn20;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xx]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">By the beginning of the 1981-82 school year, appeals to the
courts to re-open the Rosedale annex had been decisively defeated and the
boycott had come to an end. Reportedly, ten to fifteen percent of the students
who enrolled at I.S. 231 were white. Ironically, apparently as a consequence of
desegregation, minority predominance at the school was sufficient to qualify
the school for a $300 million federal grant through the Emergency School Act to
promote desegregation.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn21" name="_ednref21" style="mso-endnote-id: edn21;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">We can never know for certain if retaining neighborhood
schools would have stemmed white movement out of the boroughs of New York or
out of the city public school system. All the indications suggest that
maintaining schools such as the Rosedale annex would have at least slowed the
process. This is counterfactual history, though, and there is no way to
convince those who prefer to believe otherwise. We do know that attempts to
redistribute students for desegregation did not desegregate the schools. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The proportion of white students in New York schools had
gone down from 30% at the end of the 1970s to just 15% in the 2002-2003 school
year. This was slightly more than the 13% who were Asian. Hispanics had
displaced black students as the largest category in the city, since 34% of
those on the New York City public school rolls were black in 2002-2003 and 38%
were classified as Hispanic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the formerly white
enclave of Rosedale, the Rosedale Elementary school was 93.5% black and 4.8%
Hispanic. P.S. 138, where the Rosedale annex had been housed, was 88.9% black
and 6.8% Hispanic. I.S. 231 had become the Magnetech 231 Educational Center,
offering special magnet programs. Two decades after it was a center of the
desegregation controversy in New York, this middle school was 90.9% black and
6.3% Hispanic.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn22" name="_ednref22" style="mso-endnote-id: edn22;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">In a series of articles entitled “A System Divided,”
published over several months in 2012, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New
York Times</i> examined the changing racial and ethnic composition of New York
public schools. In this series, the newspaper provided a view of a school
system in which non-Hispanic whites had become a small minority. Among the
schools, a high degree of de facto segregation prevailed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">“In the broad resegregation of the nation’s schools that has
transpired over recent decades,” wrote reporter N.R. Kleinfeld, “New York’s
public-school system looms as one of the most segregated. While the city’s
public-school population looks diverse — 40.3 percent Hispanic, 32 percent
black, 14.9 percent white and 13.7 percent Asian — many of its schools are
nothing of the sort. About 650 of the nearly 1,700 schools in the system have
populations that are 70 percent a single race, a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York Times</i> analysis of schools data for the 2009-10 school year
found; more than half the city’s schools are at least 90 percent black and
Hispanic.”</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn23" name="_ednref23" style="mso-endnote-id: edn23;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxiii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">The
white students who remained in the system often did so, rather than flee to
private schools or move to the suburbs, because they could find ways to avoid
disadvantaged minority concentration schools through winning spots in elite
public institutions through academic achievement: "New York has eight
specialized high schools whose admission is based entirely on the results of an
entrance exam."</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn24" name="_ednref24" style="mso-endnote-id: edn24;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxiv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> Given
the racial and ethnic achievement gaps that we will describe below, this meant
that these schools had few black and Hispanic students. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">At Stuyvesant High School, considered the best public school
in the city, whites made up 24% of students in 2012, while blacks were 1.2% and
Hispanics were 2.4%.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn25" name="_ednref25" style="mso-endnote-id: edn25;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">
The elite public schools tended to be dominated by Asians, though, who
generally lacked the ability of whites to flee to private institutions or leave
for the suburbs. At Stuyvestant, 72.5% of students were Asian in 2012. Because
of their dedication to studying in order to win places in the elite schools,
though Asian students were only 14% of students in the system in 2011-2012,
they made up 60% of those at the eight top schools with admissions based on test
results.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn26" name="_ednref26" style="mso-endnote-id: edn26;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxvi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">A system of meritocratic admissions will clearly continue to
segregate students by race and ethnicity. Although the NYC Department of
Education trumpeted the claim that "NYC students outperformed students in
NYS [New York State] across student groups" on the new NYS common core
tests in 2013, this "outperformance" was largely an artifact created
by comparing the city's Asian and white students to Asian and white students
elsewhere, even though white students made up a much smaller proportion of the
school population of the city than of the state as a whole.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On that test, Asian
students in grades three through eight, concentrated in a few magnet programs
in NYC, scored at or above the proficient level in mathematics at a rate of
61.4% in NYC,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>while 60.3% of Asians
throughout the state were at the proficient level in math. Among the white
students, who were a small proportion of NYC's pupils found largely in the top
schools, 50.1% scored at or above proficient in mathematics, compared to only
38.1% of white students throughout the state. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">In English, the city's Asians (more often immigrants or
children of new immigrants than Asians in other locations) did slightly worse
than Asians in other parts of the state. Among NYC Asians,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>48.1% were at or above proficient, compared
to 50.4% of New York State Asians. Tellingly, one should note that Asians did
better than even New York's white students in English, since 46.8% of whites in
the city and 39.9% of whites throughout the state were at or above proficient.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The city's black and Hispanic majority, though, scored far
lower than either Asians or whites, and no better than blacks or Hispanics
elsewhere in New York State. In mathematics 15.3% of blacks were proficient or
better (exactly the same as the percentage of blacks throughout the state), and
in English 16.3% of blacks were proficient or better (only slightly more than
the 16.1% of statewide black students). Among NYC Hispanics, 18.6% were
proficient or better in math, and 16.6% proficient in English (as opposed to
18.4% of statewide Hispanics in math and 17.7% of statewide Hispanics in
English).</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn27" name="_ednref27" style="mso-endnote-id: edn27;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxvii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">It is interesting, although disconcerting, that in 2013
black students were still doing worse than any of the other groups; even worse
than Asian and Hispanic students in English, despite the fact that many Asian
and Hispanic students lived in immigrant, non-English speaking households. But
it is clear why Asian and white students would be concentrated in the elite
schools and programs throughout the city, and why their families would seek to
avoid desegregation into mostly black and Hispanic schools if policy makers
would ever recover the "political will" to make new aggressive
efforts at racial redistribution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Given the achievement gaps, being in a classroom with black
and Hispanic students (and especially with black students) means being in a
low-performing classroom. Those who want to avoid low-performing classrooms can
either leave the system altogether, as whites did during the history of
desegregation, or they can find schools that select on the basis of achievement
within the system. Those schools will be racially identifiable, with mostly
Asian and a substantial minority of white students. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></div>
<br />
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[i]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> John Herders, “Challenge to
the North on School Segregation,” <i>New York Times</i>, February 15, 1970.
sec. 4, p. 2.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[ii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “Antibusing Law for State
Voided by Federal Court,” <i>New York Times</i>, October 2, 1970, 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[iii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Lesley Oelsner, “Queens
School Plan Stirs Racial Controversy,” <i>New York Times,</i> April 12, 1971,
48.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref4" name="_edn4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[iv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Martin Arnold, “Racial
Outbreak at South Shore High School in Brooklyn is Traced to Earlier Tensions,”
<i>New York Times</i>, April 30, 1971, 40.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref5" name="_edn5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[v]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Mia and Mitchell Vickers, <i>New
York Times,</i> October 17, 1970, Letter to Editor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref6" name="_edn6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[vi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “Integration Plan Hailed at
School,” <i>New York Times</i>, May 18, 1974, 35.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref7" name="_edn7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[vii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Gene I. Maeroff, “City
Schools Hint Suburbs are Needed in Integration,” <i>New York Times,</i>
February 27, 1974, 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref8" name="_edn8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[viii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Marcia Chambers,”School
Integration Goals Elusive in Changing City,” <i>New York Times,</i> April 23,
1979, B1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref9" name="_edn9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn9;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[ix]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Abandoning Andrew Jackson
High,” <i>New York Times,</i> April 27, 1979, A30.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref10" name="_edn10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn10;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[x]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Marcia Chambers, “U.S.
Tells Queens to Desegregate a School,” <i>New York Times, </i>August, 30, 1979,
B3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref11" name="_edn11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn11;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Ibid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref12" name="_edn12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn12;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Ari L. Goldman,
“Macchiarola Orders Whites Shifted to Nearly All-Black Queens School,” <i>New
York Times,</i> 19 June 19, 1980, B5.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref13" name="_edn13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xiii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Gene Maeroff, “Imbalance in
the Schools and the Dilemmas of Integration,” <i>New York Times,</i> December
27, 1980, 25.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref14" name="_edn14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xiv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Ibid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn15" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref15" name="_edn15" style="mso-endnote-id: edn15;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xv]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Ari L. Goldman, “Queens
Parents Defy Macchiarola on Pupil Transfer,” <i>New York Times</i>, February 2,
1981, B3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn16" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref16" name="_edn16" style="mso-endnote-id: edn16;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xvi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Serge Schmemann, “Rosedale
School Dispute: The Parents Feel Abused,” <i>New York Times</i>, February 6,
1981, B1+, quote on B3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn17" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref17" name="_edn17" style="mso-endnote-id: edn17;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xvii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Edward A. Gargan, “Police
Evict Protestors Occupying Queens School in Integration Case,” <i>New York
Times,</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>February 8, 1981, 1+.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn18" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref18" name="_edn18" style="mso-endnote-id: edn18;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xviii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Ibid., 30.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn19" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref19" name="_edn19" style="mso-endnote-id: edn19;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xix]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Howard Sertan, letter, <i>New
York Times</i> 18 Feb.1981: 30.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn20" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref20" name="_edn20" style="mso-endnote-id: edn20;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xx]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Serge Schmemann, “White
View of Schools Clash,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York Times</i>
Feb. 17 1981: B1+, quote on B1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn21" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref21" name="_edn21" style="mso-endnote-id: edn21;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxi]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Gene L. Maeroff, “U.S. May
Aid Queens Racial Plan,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York Times,</i>
Sept. 11, 1981, B2.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn22" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref22" name="_edn22" style="mso-endnote-id: edn22;" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxii]</span></span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Enrollment data available
on-line at <www.nycenet.edu/daa/SchoolReports.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn23" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref23" name="_edn23" style="mso-endnote-id: edn23;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxiii]</span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> N.R. Kleinfeld, “Why Don’t
We Have Any White Kids?” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York Times</i>,
May 11, 2012, MB1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn24" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref24" name="_edn24" style="mso-endnote-id: edn24;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxiv]</span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Fernanda Santos, "To Be
Black at Stuyvesant High,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New York
Times,</i> February 25, 2012, MB1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn25" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref25" name="_edn25" style="mso-endnote-id: edn25;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxv]</span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Ibid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn26" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref26" name="_edn26" style="mso-endnote-id: edn26;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxvi]</span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Kyle Spencer, "For
Asians, Schools are Vital Steppingstones,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New
York Times,</i> October 26, 2012, A18.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn27" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref27" name="_edn27" style="mso-endnote-id: edn27;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="color: blue;">[xxvii]</span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">NYC Department of Education.
"2013 New York State Common Core Test Results: New York City Grades
3-8,"<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>August 2013, accessed October
28, 2013, </span><a href="http://schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/C2708C2E-9C5F-451F-B4CF-2B5DBFF87D93/0/2013MathELAResultsSummary.pdf"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;">http://schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/C2708C2E-9C5F-451F-B4CF-2B5DBFF87D93/0/2013MathELAResultsSummary.pdf</span></span></a><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-77841778597339210492014-11-21T10:28:00.001-08:002014-11-21T10:29:22.666-08:00Why Didn't School Desegregation Work? The Case of Los Angeles<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">I've been looking at the question of why school
desegregation failed to end the racial isolation of minority students or create
equality of academic achievement. The
evidence from the histories of school districts around the country strongly
supports the argument that this failure was not the result of a reluctance on
the part of policy makers to push hard enough. Instead, the school
desegregation movement illustrated the hubris of social policy, the belief that
social institutions can be redesigned at will. Today, I'll move to the West
Coast and describe what happened in one of the nation's largest school
districts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Los Angeles, California<o:p></o:p></span></span></i></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi23ICzmQ35Itb1HBznhhyphenhyphenJP3mA27Pb84XCX8v2gTRPc1H7yqW10b8zpHc1PQP-s5iWneJyoDcxtLBHyQ7AAWtfIcBegQqKR-EoHKnMI4skLciA8gn_mUgamdLgtkeoFbOmhSrB0i3X6VqL/s1600/LAschooldistrict.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi23ICzmQ35Itb1HBznhhyphenhyphenJP3mA27Pb84XCX8v2gTRPc1H7yqW10b8zpHc1PQP-s5iWneJyoDcxtLBHyQ7AAWtfIcBegQqKR-EoHKnMI4skLciA8gn_mUgamdLgtkeoFbOmhSrB0i3X6VqL/s1600/LAschooldistrict.jpg" height="279" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The desegregation fight in Los
Angeles began with the case of <i>Crawford
v. Board of Education </i>in 1963, when black parents filed a suit on behalf of
black and Latino students to enable minority children to attend then all-white
schools.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> The
California district’s first desegregation trial was held in 1967, when white
students were a majority of 55%. On February 11, 1970, Superior Court Judge
Alfred Gitelson found that the school board had operated a segregated system
and he ordered it to take action to desegregate. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The school board appealed Judge
Gitelson’s decision. In March 1975, the court of appeal found in favor of the
board. In turn, though, this finding was appealed by the American Civil
Liberties Union. At the end of June 1976, the California Supreme Court upheld
the 1970 ruling by Judge Gitelson. While the state high court reversed a part
of Judge Gitelson’s ruling that defined desegregation in terms of specific
percentages of students, it ordered the school board to alleviate all of the
effects of segregation, regardless of the cause of segregation, and show
progress toward that end.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">During 1977, the L.A. school board
submitted a desegregation plan to the California Supreme Court and began
hearings on the plan. In February 1978, Judge Paul Egly issued an order
approving the board’s plan as a first step toward desegregation. The following
year, Egly ordered that mandatory reassignments of students from current to new
schools cover grades one through nine by September 1980, and then include all
other grades by 1983. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Judge Egly’s order was complicated
by many of the characteristics of Los Angeles. It is a huge district, covering
700 square miles, with minority students most heavily concentrated in South
Central L.A. This meant that extremely long daily bus rides would be required
to redistribute the city’s students. Many of the districts where the white students
lived were surrounded by other suburban school districts, making white movement
to less threatened school environments relatively easy. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Los Angeles was a harbinger of the
future in many other metropolitan areas because its ethnic composition was far
more complex than a simple division between black and white. Some of these
other ethnic groups, such as Mexican Americans, felt that the desegregation
program was not in their own interests.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> The Los Angeles plan did not appear to take
any of these complications into consideration. It was an abstract blueprint
imposed from above by command and control planners.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Spurred largely by events in Los
Angeles, California voters approved Proposition 1 in 1979, amending the state
constitution to prohibit any more busing or school transfers than required
under the U.S. Constitution. Although this ended mandatory busing in Los
Angeles in 1981 after the Court of Appeals upheld the proposition, voluntary busing
of students for school desegregation did continue under a plan approved by
Judge Robert B. Lopez in September 1981. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In accordance with the voluntary
plan, the school system bused 57,000 voluntary school transferees in 1985. The
local NAACP criticized the program in that year, though, because almost all of
those being bused were black students. The civil rights organization maintained
that a serious attempt to desegregate Los Angeles schools would require busing
white students into South Central L.A. Interestingly, Latino education leaders
opposed busing, instead favoring greater spending on neighborhood schools
within Latino areas.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn3" name="_ednref3" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Los Angeles also tried to
desegregate through the common strategy of magnet schools, offering special
educational programs in the hopes of appealing to members of all racial groups.
The magnet schools tried to maintain enrollments that were 40% white and 60%
nonwhite. By the early 1980s, though, they were already finding it difficult to
meet the 40% target for white students.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn4" name="_ednref4" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In 1982, as many as 10 of the
district’s 84 magnet schools contained no white students at all and 18 had
fewer than 20% white students. Only 33 were at approximately the target
enrollments.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn5" name="_ednref5" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> Many
of the magnet schools were also not providing students with the quality of
education promised, and they provided educations that were expensive for
taxpayers, but failed to achieve “either distinction or integration.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn6" name="_ednref6" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Meanwhile, faced with declining
social environments in low-income, majority black schools, many concerned black
parents began behaving exactly like middle class whites and engaging in various
forms of “black flight.” “Some ... are manipulating the school system to their
children’s advantage [by using false addresses to enroll their children in other
school districts]. Others are busing their children to schools in white
neighborhoods, placing them in special programs, or leaving the public school
system altogether.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn7" name="_ednref7" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[vii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Fight over judicial control of the
schools continued, even after the Supreme Court upheld Proposition 1. In 1985,
voters in West San Fernando Valley, the heart of opposition to busing, elected
busing critic and academic David Armor to the Los Angeles School Board out of
fear that the area would return to a mandatory program of transporting students
around the area.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn8" name="_ednref8" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[viii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Trying to maintain elusive racial
balances became increasingly difficult as the population of Los Angeles changed
over the course of the 1980s. In 1987, with numbers of minority students in the
district rapidly increasing, the school board voted to increase minority
enrollments to 70% at 48 magnet schools, while still designating the schools as
“integrated.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn9" name="_ednref9" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[ix]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> The
changing of ratios was controversial. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Some critics accused the school
board of intentionally creating segregated schools. Others, particularly in the
Valley, were upset because bringing down the acceptable proportion of white
students in magnet schools to 30% would lower the number of white students who
could get into those schools. School board member Roberta Weintraub, speaking
to white parents from the Valley, complained that “I’m really tired of our
Valley schools getting shafted. My perception is that we will have a massive
pullout of the middle class.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn10" name="_ednref10" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[x]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">With decreasing opportunities for
the white middle class families, many tried devious maneuvers to place their
children in desirable school environments. School officials responded with
intensified efforts at control. Child-care transfers became a common strategy.
District policy permitted parents to transfer their children out of their
designated schools if the schools did not provide before or after school
childcare or if the parents had arranged for off-campus childcare near another
school. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The board found that white parents
were using fraudulent child care claims to transfer their children out of
minority dominated schools to predominantly white schools. Thus, in the summer
of 1988 the board began to refuse this type of exemption to white students
transferring into schools that were 70% or more white.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn11" name="_ednref11" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> In the
name of desegregation, which had originally meant allowing minority students to
attend white schools, Los Angeles had begun officially approving schools that
were mostly black or Latino, while energetically discouraging schools that were
mostly white.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">By June 1988, the pointlessness of
the district’s long and expensive desegregation suit had become clear. Judge A.
Wallace Tashima granted a conditional dismissal of the case that had begun in
1963, and directed the NAACP and the school district to resolve their
differences. According to school district counsel Peter James, the dismissal
came from the recognition that little could be done to desegregate a school
system that was just 17% white.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn12" name="_ednref12" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
After bitter and difficult negotiations between the two parties, the judge
finally dismissed the suit in March 1989, twenty-six years after its beginning.
<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The white proportion of public
schools had dropped still further from the previous year, to less than 16%. The
<i>Los Angeles Times</i> reported that there
was a wide and persistent gap in academic achievement between the minority
students and the small number of whites who were left. “More than 20 years
after the Los Angeles Unified School District began its original busing program
to integrate schools, the minority pupils in that program are doing little or
no better than the students they leave behind in segregated schools and much
worse than their white classmates.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn13" name="_ednref13" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xiii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In the years following the end of
desegregation, the percentage of black students in the Los Angeles Unified
School District did decline, as did numbers of black students. The district
registered black enrollments of 82,423 in 2005-2006 (11.4% of all students),
which declined to 69,143 in 2009-2010 (10.2%). This did not represent growing
desegregation, in the traditional sense of greater contact between minority
students and whites, though. Instead, it reflected the demographic changes we
discussed above. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Los Angeles schools had become a
concentration of Hispanics, who made up about three-fourths of the district's
student body (73.4%) in 2009-2010. Within the district, schools were generally
racially identifiable, mostly as Hispanic, but in some cases as black. In the
2011-2012 school year, for example, Douglass High School was 92.1% black and
7.4% Hispanic. It had no recorded white students. Camino Nuevo High School, on
the other hand, was 96.6% Hispanic and only 0.2% black. Camino Nuevo had only
four white students in that year.<sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn14" name="_ednref14" title="">[xiv]</a></span></sup><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn14" name="_ednref14" title=""><!--[endif]--></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><sup><sup><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></sup></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">After all of the expense and all of
the conflict over desegregation, Los Angeles still had schools that were almost
all black or almost all Hispanic. White students had become a scarce commodity.
This was not entirely a result of white flight from the schools. Demographic
change from immigration also played a large part. But the fact remains that
social planners' schemes to redistribute students by race had proved futile in
the Los Angeles School District.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div>
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br clear="all" />
</span><br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Jim Mann, “18 Years En
Route, LA Busing Arrives at the Highest Court,” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, March
31, 1982, 1-2.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Robert Lindsey, “Anger in
California”<i> New York Times</i>, March 5, 1978, E4.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> David G. Savage, “School
Integration, Crowding: Solutions in Conflict?” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>,
October 27. 1985, sec. 2, p.1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “14,000 Apply for ‘Magnet’
Schools,” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, March 28, 1982, 25.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Ibid.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">William Trombley, “Major
Problems Face Magnet Schools,” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, April 12, 1982, 2.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[vii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Lee Harris and
TendayiKumbula, “Many Parents Giving Up on Black Public Schools,” <i>Los
Angeles Times</i>, September 1, 1982: 1+.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[viii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Pamela Moreland, “Armor
Doesn’t Miss a Beat in Battle Against Busing,” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, June
6. 1985, 3.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[ix]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Pamela Moreland, “Board
Raises Ratio of Minority Enrollments for 48 L.A. Schools,” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>,
May 19, 1987, 1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[x]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Pamela Moreland, “Valley is
‘Getting Shafted,’ Weintraub Says of Magnet Proposal,” <i>Los Angeles Times,</i>
November 14, 1987, 3.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Pamela Moreland, “L.A.
Schools’ White Limits at 11 Schools is Reinforced,” <i>Los Angeles Times,</i>
June 7, 1988, 1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Elaine Woo, “Judge Tells
NAACP to Settle Lawsuit,” <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, June 21, 1988, 1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xiii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Sandy Banks, “Minority Gains
Limited in L.A. Busing Program,” <i>Los Angeles Times,</i> June 17, 1990, 1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[xiv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Los Angeles Unified School
District, District and School Profiles, accessed October 25, 2013, </span><a href="http://search.lausd.k12.ca.us/cgi-bin/fccgi.exe?w3exec=PROFILE0"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://search.lausd.k12.ca.us/cgi-bin/fccgi.exe?w3exec=PROFILE0</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-21482335902936858752014-11-20T10:13:00.000-08:002014-11-20T10:13:00.363-08:00Why Didn't School Desegregation Work? The Case of Chicago<div class="MsoNormal">
For the past few days, I've been looking at why attempts to
desegregate American schools and equalize opportunities have not been
successful. Tracing the histories of
individual school districts, I've argued that the evidence does not support the
view that governmental efforts to redistribute educational advantages would
work if only we would return to the coercive policies of the 1970s. Instead, if
we look at what actually happened in school districts around the nation,
mandates to redistribute students by race actually produced more intense
segregation and the isolation of minority students.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Chicago, Illinois<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhff2a35JW-H9-gupLUow_pgsjGDkH4Gb3CrtdrJBGh05JRrFYIMTdooBjgFeWF6kL6gWiCeLuAy1KFtxOfb0Li8Vh6BX_ePT7iwFp7Qjt1q9AON4zidKsLJ2Yv5YSedbZexL-17kyeI1Zt/s1600/chicago+schools.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhff2a35JW-H9-gupLUow_pgsjGDkH4Gb3CrtdrJBGh05JRrFYIMTdooBjgFeWF6kL6gWiCeLuAy1KFtxOfb0Li8Vh6BX_ePT7iwFp7Qjt1q9AON4zidKsLJ2Yv5YSedbZexL-17kyeI1Zt/s1600/chicago+schools.jpg" /></a>Like so many other desegregation cases, the roots of
Chicago’s lie in the era of the Civil Rights Movement. Several Chicago parents
filed suit in 1961, claiming that the city’s schools were segregated by race.
Two years later, attempting to avoid court action, the school board responded
by appointing a panel of experts to study the situation, although the board did
not act on the panel’s recommendations. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The situation turned more serious in 1965, when the U.S.
Commission of Education froze federal funds to the city because of the
continuing racial identification of the schools. Political connections
temporarily rescued the city, though, because Mayor Richard J. Daley contacted
President Lyndon Johnson, and Johnson rescinded the Commission’s cutoff. For
the following decade, Chicago largely avoided student redistribution.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chicago School Superintendent James F. Redmond made some
efforts at desegregation, proposing the development of magnet schools and the
use of busing in 1967. Still, these types of programs made little headway for
the next decade. A new era of pressure from above began in March 1976, when the
Illinois State Board of Education told the Chicago Board of Education that the
city was not complying with the state’s desegregation rules, and that the state
would shut off all funds.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The city board responded to the state’s complaint by
initiating its “Access to Excellence” strategy. Chicago school officials
pitched “Access to Excellence” as a way of relieving overcrowding in the
primarily black schools in its central area. Overcrowding was indeed a problem
in many of the central city schools. Clearly, though, much of the motivation
for the strategy was the retention of state funds and avoidance of a federal
lawsuit. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This 1977 plan aimed at the voluntary transfer of 6,573
black students in 15 overly crowded schools to 51 schools in Chicago’s nearly
all-white sections. Some would be transported by school bus and some would be
given tokens to ride public transportation to their new schools. By the
beginning of the 1977 school year, though, only 1,000 black students had chosen
to participate in the program, reportedly because of threats of white violence.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The U.S. Supreme Court added to the complications of
desegregation in Chicago, and elsewhere in the nation. The Court ruled at the
beginning of 1977 that the affluent, all-white Chicago suburb of Arlington
Heights could enact zoning restrictions that would prevent the building of
racially integrated housing for people with moderate and low incomes. To be
unconstitutional, the zoning would have had to be clearly racially
discriminatory in intent, and not just consequence.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This had two important implications for desegregation.
First, it raised the requirements for demonstrating discrimination, in both
schools and neighborhoods. Second, it meant that high-income neighborhoods
could legally keep out lower income people, making it more difficult to
integrate schools by integrating neighborhoods. Exclusive neighborhoods conflicted
with goals for achieving inclusive schools.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The voluntary busing may have been voluntary on the part of
those riding the school buses and public transport out of central city
locations. It was far from voluntary from the perspective of those in the suburbs
who were receiving the transfers. The controversy turned violent on September
11, 1977, when whites from Chicago’s Southwest Side area held a candlelight
vigil in protest, and an angry black counter-protestor drove a car into the
crowd.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn3" name="_ednref3" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
White mothers picketed the schools that were receiving central city students,
and as many as five hundred white students staged a walkout.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn4" name="_ednref4" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Just two years after the voluntary desegregation program
began in Chicago, a report to the State Superintendent of Education concluded
that the $35 million program had had virtually no impact on desegregating the
city’s schools. According to the report, 90.3 percent of black students in
Chicago would have to be re-assigned to white schools in order to accomplish
desegregation.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn5" name="_ednref5" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>Allowing
choice would not achieve the desired goals, even if only the families of
minority students could choose.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By October 1979, based on a two-year investigation by the
Department of Health, Education and Welfare’s Office of Civil Rights, the
federal government accused Chicago of maintaining segregated schools. The
federal government demanded that local school officials come up with a plan for
redistributing the system’s 475,000 students, who were at that time 60% black,
22% white, 15% Hispanic, and 2% Asian. The Board of Education rejected the HEW
conditions, laying itself open to the lawsuit it had tried to avoid.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn6" name="_ednref6" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For the next year, Chicago and the federal government
negotiated. Finally, on September 24, 1980, the Chicago Board of Education, the
U.S. Justice Department, and U.S. District Judge Milton I. Shadur came to an
agreement on citywide desegregation. The agreement established a broad
framework for action, but no specific quotas or numbers of students at
particular schools. Acknowledging that demographics dictated that many students
would remain in segregated schools, the agreement established that students in
majority black or Hispanic schools would be given compensatory education
programs. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While majority black or Hispanic schools were acceptable, though,
majority white schools were another matter. According to Drew S. Days III,
Assistant U.S. Attorney for Civil Rights, “the board would have a very heavy
burden to justify majority white schools.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn7" name="_ednref7" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
From the point of view of numbers, the reluctance to allow majority white
schools made sense. Whites, after all, had gone down to under 19% of the school
population by the beginning of the 1980 school year.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As white students dwindled in numbers, though, increasingly
the options open to white families were to place their children in
minority-dominated, often low-income schools, or escape from the Chicago
system. Given the reluctance of white parents to place their children in
schools in which their own racial group was in the minority, this essentially
guaranteed that white flight, a fact of life in Chicago for decades, would take
on an added speed and volume. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Board of Education passed a new desegregation measure in
the spring of 1981, delaying busing until 1983, and limiting white enrollment
to 70% of any school. Under this measure, schools with too many white students
would have to gradually cut down on their white enrollments. Those who did not
succeed in getting rid of white students would have special programs imposed on
them, such as receiving forced transfers.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn8" name="_ednref8" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although white avoidance of majority black schools was
certainly not the only reason for white movement out of Chicago, the
unwillingness of white families to send their children into schools in which
the children would be surrounded by economically disadvantaged minority group
members helped to eliminate the remaining white neighborhoods in the city. By
the time of the 1980 census, Chicago was “a highly segregated city in which an
expanding black ghetto is displacing whites at its leading edge and leaving
shattered, abandoned areas in its wake.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn9" name="_ednref9" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The public received a glimpse of a small part of the
on-going cost of desegregation in February 1981. At that time, Chicago Board of
Education special counsel for school desegregation Robert Howard billed the
school board $87,732 for about five months of legal work on the agreement with
the federal government.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn10" name="_ednref10" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> This
was not, of course, the final bill, and it in fact represented only a miniscule
portion of the total expense of this process. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Represented by Mr. Howard, in 1983, the school board asked
Judge Shadur to force the federal government to provide funds for the
desegregation agreement the board had made with the government in 1980. Over a
two-year period, the Chicago school system had paid $93.6 million in its own
money to implement the agreement, and it expected to pay another $67 million in
1983-84. Since the school board was facing a deficit of $200 million, the
members did not know where they would come up with the money.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn11" name="_ednref11" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chicago had difficulty getting money out of a federal
government that had imposed an expensive line of action on the city. After
Judge Shadur ordered Washington, D.C. to pay for part of Chicago’s school
desegregation efforts, the U.S. Department of Education responded that it did
not have the funds and the Justice Department appealed the order. Illinois
Democratic Representative Sidney Yates tried to step in by introducing a bill
in Congress to give Chicago $20 million. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the bill passed, though, President Ronald Reagan
vetoed it, saying that Judge Shadur had violated the principle of separation of
the powers of the judiciary and legislature by freezing other forms of federal
spending in Chicago until Washington supplied money for the Board of Education.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn12" name="_ednref12" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
After the 7<sup>th</sup> Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals upheld Judge Shadur’s
order, in September 1983, Chicago did get its $20 million, but this was less
than a fourth of what the Board of Education was by then actually spending on
desegregation efforts.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn13" name="_ednref13" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Eventually, even the federal judiciary came to recognize
that it was not possible to redistribute white students a district does not
have. U.S. District Judge Charles P. Kocoras declared at the beginning of 2003
that the agreement between the federal government and the district of the 1980s
was no longer workable. He ordered the district to come up with a new
desegregation plan, which was approved by the court in the spring of 2004. The
only integration possible in Chicago schools in 2004 involved mixing black and
Hispanic students. By this time the city’s public school students were 51%
black, 36% Hispanic, 9% white, and 3% Asian.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn14" name="_ednref14" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After decades of expensive and contentious efforts to shift
students around, the futility of desegregation had become evident. Judge
Kocoras finally lifted Chicago’s consent decree in September 2009. Chicago
Public school officials had urged this step, “…saying it would free up money
spent on transportation and other services needed to comply with the decree.
Further, they noted that, with just 9 percent white enrollment, more
integration was impossible.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn15" name="_ednref15" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At the hearing on the decree, “more than a dozen Chicago
public school students testified … that a 28-year old desegregation decree has
failed them,” reported the Chicago Sun-Times. “They begged for more diversity,
more and better books, and better teachers in those schools CPS said it has
been unable to desegregate – all of which the 1980 decree was supposed to
address.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn16" name="_ednref16" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
The pleas for more and better books and perhaps also better teachers were
understandable. But the school system obviously had no way of furnishing more
diversity. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Following the end of the consent decree, the Hispanic
proportion continued to increase, becoming a plurality of Chicago students
(44.1%) by the 2011-2012 school year. Because of this growth in Hispanic
representation, black students were no longer the majority, making up 41.6% of
Chicago students in 2011-2012. Whites, however, were still a small minority, at
only 8.8% of students, and were concentrated in the system’s magnet and
selective schools. Nearly nine out of ten Chicago public school students were
classified as low-income by 2012.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn17" name="_ednref17" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The federal government forced Chicago to spend millions of
dollars on programs that had no discernible positive impact. Although the white
proportion of the student population probably would have declined even without
desegregation, active efforts to make white students into a minority in any
schools they would attend virtually guaranteed their departure. Most remarkable
of all, the mostly black and Hispanic leaders of the school district still had
to negotiate “desegregation plans” with the federal government until Judge
Kocoras agreed to end oversight on the urging of the mostly minority
administrators of Chicago’s schools.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Desegregation efforts did not accomplish any narrowing of
racial differences in school performance. Journalist Steve Bogira, in June
2013, cited a University of Chicago study that found that between 1990 and 2009
(while Chicago was still under its consent decree) “…racial gaps in achievement
steadily increased. White students made more progress than Latino students;
African-American students fell further behind all other groups. White, Asian,
and Latino students improved modestly in reading, but there were ‘virtually no improvements’
among African-American students, at the elementary or high school levels.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn18" name="_ednref18" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xviii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div>
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Paul Delaney, “Chicago to
Attempt to Integrate Schools After Success in Other Cities,” <i>New York Times</i>,
September 4, 1977, A6.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Lesley Oeslner, “Court
Backs Zoning that in Effect Bars Low Income Blacks,” <i>New York Times</i>,
January 12, 1977, A1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “3 Chicago Youths Injured
at an Anti-Busing Rally,” <i>New York Times</i>, September 12, 1977, A18.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “500 Chicago Students Walk
Out Over Busing,” <i>New York Times</i>, September 14, 1977, A16.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Nathaniel Sheppard Jr.,
“Effort to Integrate Chicago Schools Has Had Little Effect, Study Finds,” <i>New
York Times</i>, March 6, 1979, A14.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “Chicago Board Rejects
School Desegregation Under U.S. Conditions,” <i>New York Times</i>, October 18,
1979, B24.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[vii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Casey Banas, “City Must
Involve Most Schools in Integration Plan,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, September
28, 1980, sec. 1, p. 2. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[viii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Casey Banas, “School Board
Oks New Bias Plan,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, April 30, 1981, sec. 1, p.1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ix]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> John McCarron and
StanelyZiemba, “Still Highly Segregated, Data Show,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>,
April 7, 1981,sec. 1, p. 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[x]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> “School Bill $87,732 for
Bias Pact,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, February 11, 1981, sec. 5., p.1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Jean Latz Griffin, “Schools
Sue US for Integration Aid,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, June 2, 1983, sec. 1, p.
1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> John Schmeltzer and John
McCarron, “City School Aid Vetoed,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, August 14, 1983,
sec. 1, p. 1+.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xiii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Casey Banas, “379 Schools
Vie for U.S. Funds,” <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, December 29, 1983, sec. 2, p. 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xiv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Mary Ann Zehr, “Close to
Home,”<i> Education Week</i> 23, no, 6 (10 March 2004): 30-34.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn15">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Chicago Catalyst, “Federal
Judge Ends Chicago School Desegregation Decree,” accessed October 21, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.catalyst-chicago.org/notebook/2009/09/24/federal-judge-ends-chicago-schools-desegregation-decree"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.catalyst-chicago.org/notebook/2009/09/24/federal-judge-ends-chicago-schools-desegregation-decree</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn16">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xvi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Rosalind Rossi, “Kids Beg
for Better Schools – Students Say the Desegregation Decree Failed Them,” <i>Chicago Sun-Times</i>, January 23, 2009, 14.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn17">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref17" name="_edn17" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xvii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Chicago Public
Schools: Stats and Facts,” Website of
the Chicago Public School System, accessed October 21, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.cps.edu/About_CPS/At-a-glance/Pages/Stats_and_facts.aspx"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.cps.edu/About_CPS/At-a-glance/Pages/Stats_and_facts.aspx</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn18">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref18" name="_edn18" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xviii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Steve Bogira, “Trying to
Make Separate Equal,” <i>Chicago Reader</i>,
June 2013, accessed October 22, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/segregated-schools-desegregation-city-suburbs-history-solutions/Content?oid=9992386"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/segregated-schools-desegregation-city-suburbs-history-solutions/Content?oid=9992386</span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-62652248177057351162014-11-19T09:35:00.000-08:002014-11-19T09:35:43.677-08:00Why Didn't School Desegregation Work? The Case of Baton Rouge<div class="MsoNormal">
For the past few days, I've been posting case studies of
school districts, examining the question of why school desegregation did not
create educational equality across racial and ethnic groups or lead to schools
that did not concentrate racial and ethnic minorities. If we look at the
evidence, I argue, the answer is that the attempt to redistribute students by
race assumed that educational quality was something that policy makers could
redistribute at will. But the value of an education depends heavily on the
clientele of schools. Those who have economic and social resources can create
high-performing schools. Those who have these resources also have the capacity
to avoid low-performing schools. Unfortunately, social as well as financial
resources in the U.S. are associated with race and ethnicity. This means that
attempts to redistribute students by race and ethnicity means not only
redistributing advantages, but
disadvantages as well. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Previously, I presented the cases of the supposed
"success stories" of Little Rock, Charlotte-Mecklenburg, Milwaukee,
and St. Louis. When one looks at what
happened in these districts, it becomes clear that these were not successes at
all. Now, I'll give cases that are much more common, districts in which school
desegregation was obviously disastrous. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Baton Rouge, Louisiana<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><b><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></sup></b><!--[endif]--></sup></a><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMo8fwi1xIOsHxBvAEYSx_EJcsfjW4wJVbceBHJm1KqbeXUzHaHNjYdyZC6u7Avcv4JoF1D-e2Uh1SJXyCYLoeUbeyeH0SrLMpAQh5qHpULjqEAJ94mxHucnELikCwpKWekO_0d9SIB8Ur/s1600/Baton+Rouge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMo8fwi1xIOsHxBvAEYSx_EJcsfjW4wJVbceBHJm1KqbeXUzHaHNjYdyZC6u7Avcv4JoF1D-e2Uh1SJXyCYLoeUbeyeH0SrLMpAQh5qHpULjqEAJ94mxHucnELikCwpKWekO_0d9SIB8Ur/s1600/Baton+Rouge.jpg" /></a>By the time it ended in
2003, the case of <i>Davis et al. v. East Baton Rouge Parish School Board</i>
was said to have been the longest running desegregation suit in the nation. It
began in 1956, when black parents sued the school board for running a dual
school system. During the 1960s, the school board attempted to answer the suit
by adopting a “freedom of choice” approach to integrating schools, allowing
black and white students to attend schools without regard to race. This resulted
in little change in the racial identifications of schools, though, and
educational institutions in Louisiana’s capital remained distinctly black and
white. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Despite the long
existence of the East Baton Rouge (EBR) suit, active, court-ordered desegregation
in the district only began in 1981. In that year, Federal District Judge John
Parker decided that the school board had been running a dual school system for
the previous twenty years. Judge Parker therefore ordered the closing of
fifteen schools, and developed pairs or clusters of previously black and white
schools that were to exchange students through busing in order to achieve
racial balances similar to those of the district-wide demographics.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The response to the 1981
decision was immediate. White families said that they would leave the public
schools if it were put into effect. The president of the parent-teacher
organization at a majority white school, whose daughter was to be transferred
to a majority black school in a lower-income neighborhood, declared, “She will
not do that. Private schools are starting up every day.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> Events showed that these were not idle
threats. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-CA style='mso-ansi-language:EN-CA'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1</span><![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span><![endif]-->In the first year of
court-ordered busing alone, the East Baton Rouge public school system lost
7,000 white students. Private school waiting lists grew long and new schools
started up almost daily. The percentage of white students in the East Baton
Rouge school district who attended non-public schools had been going down from
1965 until 1980, from just under a fourth of white students to well under 20%
just before the judge’s decree. From the early 1980s onward, though, this
proportion went steadily upward, so that nearly half of the white students in
the district were in non-public schools by 2000.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In addition to moving
from public to private schools, Baton Rouge area white families also either
moved out of the East Baton Rouge school district, or, if they were new
arrivals, they settled outside of the school district. Settlement in the
adjoining Livingston and Ascension Parishes<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn3" name="_ednref3" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
had been growing slowly before the 1981 decision, but the proportion of the
area’s white population in these nearby areas began to shoot up rapidly just
after the decision. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
About one-fourth of the
region’s white public school students were enrolled outside of the East Baton
Rouge district in 1965. By the end of the 1970s, still only about one-third of
these white public school students were in adjoining districts. In the two
decades after Judge Parker’s 1981 ruling though, the proportion of white public
school students in the Capital City metropolitan area that were enrolled in the
Ascension or Livingston districts grew to about two-thirds. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A longtime school
official in one of the districts outside of Baton Rouge observed that the
growth of the district’s population was “almost exclusively driven by white
flight and the initial location of new hires for industry in East Baton Rouge
who will not live where they work.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn4" name="_ednref4" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> Readers should note that this was not a
matter of whites leaving some blighted central city for the green lawns of the
suburbs. Baton Rouge itself consists almost entirely of suburbs, so that this
was movement from the suburbs to the suburbs.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Baton Rouge’s loss of
white students briefly slowed in the late 1980s. A school system central office
administrator with whom we spoke attributed this to a brief experiment with
“controlled choice.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn5" name="_ednref5" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> This
was explicitly intended to restore the confidence of those who had lost faith
in the local public school system. It relied on magnet programs and special
curricula. The experiment broke down, though, because of shortages in funding
and difficulties in maintaining support from school officials.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By 1996, East Baton Rouge
had changed from a majority white to a majority black district. Two-thirds of
the public school students in the district were black, although the proportion
had been roughly constant at about 40% from 1965 until just before the 1981
court order. Largely to stabilize this chaotic, rapidly changing system, the
school board and plaintiffs to the Davis case, including the NAACP, reached a
court-approved consent decree in 1996. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The consent decree
largely ended busing, and sought, instead, to pump large infusions of funds
into the school system, including generous “equity accounts” for historically
black schools. The $2.2 billion dollar program hit a speed bump when it went
before taxpayers, though, since voters resoundingly defeated a tax and bond
proposal to raise money for continued desegregation efforts. With much of the
middle class now out of the local public schools, members of the middle class
had little interest in taxing themselves for a system many had fled.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Racial differences in
school performance fed desires by whites to leave the East Baton Rouge public
school system. On the math portion of the 1999 Louisiana Graduation Exit
Examination, for example, white students in EBR’s public schools answered an
average of 72% of the questions correctly. Black EBR students answered an
average of less than 55% of these questions correctly. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Among schools, the very
few that ranked in the state’s top categories as “School of Academic
Excellence” or “School of Academic Distinction” on the 1999 Louisiana
Educational Assessment Program tended to be precisely the schools where the
remaining white students were still clustered. The one school in the top
category was about 80% white and the four schools in the next highest category
averaged about 55% white. At the other end, the forty-six schools in the next
to lowest “Academically Below Average” category averaged 87% black, and the
three “Academically Unacceptable” schools averaged 94% black. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As whites continued to
leave the desegregating district, they left the less advantaged black students
behind. Deputy School Superintendent Clayton Wilcox observed that, “the school
system is getting blacker.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn6" name="_ednref6" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> By
the 2002-2003 school year, 73% of the public school students in the district
were black, and the proportion was a good deal higher in the elementary grades.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn7" name="_ednref7" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>Several
years later, in 2009-2010, 82% of the district’s students were black. A little
under 12% were white and the rest were Asian or Hispanic. Most of the white
students left in East Baton Rouge in 2010 were in non-public schools (59%).<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn8" name="_ednref8" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the mid-2000s, East
Baton Rouge schools, like schools in Orleans and some other Louisiana
districts, began to turn in desperation to a form of official segregation by
school performance within the district. In 2003, alarmed by the low level of
school achievement in several districts, the Louisiana legislature passed an
act to create the Recovery School District (RSD), a special statewide district
that would take over consistently failing schools, as measured by student
performance scores. Although the RSD was
most active in Orleans Parish following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the
statewide district also took over the lowest performing schools in East Baton
Rouge, either as schools directly run by the RSD or as charter schools under
RSD authority By fall 2013, eight Baton Rouge schools were listed under RSD
direction.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn9" name="_ednref9" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thus, Baton Rouge had
essentially segregated its worst schools from the rest of the district. These
schools were also invariably minority concentration schools. For example, the
Baton Rouge RSD’s Capitol High School, which received a grade of “F” on the
2011-2012 school report card, had only African American students.<sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn10" name="_ednref10" title="">[x]</a></span></sup><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn10" name="_ednref10" title=""><!--[endif]--></a></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<sup><sup><br /></sup></sup></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Crestworth Learning Academy,
also a Baton Rouge RSD middle school, had only African American and only
low-income students. It received an “F” on the 2010-2011 school performance
score, the most recently available on the school’s profile sheet.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn11" name="_ednref11" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
Dalton Elementary School was 100% African American, 100% low-income. It also
received a score of “F” on the 2010-2011 school performance score.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn12" name="_ednref12" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The RSD may have been a
reasonable educational strategy. Desegregation had become impossible. The worst
schools were so bad that desperate measures were justified. However the RSD
also created a separate internal district of entirely black, entirely poor
students within a district of almost entirely black, almost entirely poor
students.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
`Middle class families
with children, both black and white, had already moved out of the core areas of
Baton Rouge to the suburbs by the time the Recovery School District came into
existence. Concern about the decline of East Baton Rouge schools led to repeated
efforts by suburban neighborhoods within the EBR district to break away and
form their own systems. The majority black town of Baker became the first to
secede in 1999, but Baker contained mostly minority students and saw no
improvement in its school system. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Consistent with the argument
that being in schools that concentrate advantages pays off, predominantly white
breakaway districts had much more success. The Zachary Community School
District came into existence in 2003, after residents convinced the state
legislature to carve out a new district. By 2011, the Zachary district was
Louisiana’s top performing district, as measured by the District Performance
Score.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn13" name="_ednref13" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
When the 2013 school results came out in October 2013, the <i>Times Picayune</i> newspaper reported that “The Zachary school system
north of Baton Rouge maintained its status as the top-rated school system.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn14" name="_ednref14" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 2005, the citizens of
the Central area voted to incorporate as the City of Central, apparently in
order to create a separate school system, which was established in 2007.
Central also showed a record of achievement much higher than that of East Baton
Rouge, and by 2012 the Central school district was the fourth top ranked system
in the state. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn15" name="_ednref15" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Like Zachary, Central was
among the 12 percent of Louisiana school systems that received an “A” in the
2013 school results.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn16" name="_ednref16" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a>
Residents in the southeast part of EBR mounted an effort to follow the examples
of Zachary and Central. Frustrated in their attempts to create a separate
school system within Baton Rouge, in 2013 the southeast Baton Rouge
organization Local Schools for Local Children began calling for a petition to
create a new city.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn17" name="_ednref17" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Economists at Louisiana
State University estimated that the loss of this middle class, mainly white
area, would take $53 million away from the general fund of the rest of the
parish. They predicted that the income loss would lead to an increase in taxes
in the left over portions. Even with tax increases, the secession of Central
would likely result in cuts to police and fire services.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn18" name="_ednref18" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xviii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The <i>Times-Picayune</i> newspaper gave some insight into the motivations of
those calling for the new city of St. George in southeast Baton Rouge.
Describing one of the core group of organizers behind the St. George effort,
the newspaper wrote:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;">
Norman
Browning wants out. He wants out of a school district where students bring guns
to school, where cell-phone videos capture fistfights, where two teenagers
recently knocked out a bus drivers teeth, where a middle schooler set a
substitute teacher on fire. He wants out of a school district that is
attempting – and, he believes, failing – to cater to 42,000 children, the
majority of whom are impoverished and struggling in school.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn19" name="_ednref19" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xix]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Critics of this newest
effort to split off from East Baton Rouge to get away from the district’s
school system accused the new city advocates of disingenuously denying the role
of race in their desire to leave, and of taking their economic and social
resources and leaving low-income, minority students behind. But even if one
attributes all of the problems plaguing East Baton Rouge’s district to a
history of racial oppression, no parent would want to make penance for the sins
of ancestors with the sacrifice of his or her own children to a well-documented
climate of violence and failure.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div>
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Events in the Baton Rouge
case are drawn primarily from books and articles that I co-authored with
Stephen J. Caldas, See Bankston and Caldas, <i>A Troubled Dream.</i>; and,
Stephen J. Caldas and Carl L. Bankston III, “Baton Rouge, Desegregation, and
White Flight,” <i>Research in the Schools </i>8.2
(2001): 21-32.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Quoted in Bankston and
Caldas, <i>A Troubled Dream</i>, 86.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> In Louisiana, the parish
(county) is in most cases identical with the school district.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Quoted in Bankston and
Caldas, <i>A Troubled Dream,</i> 96.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> See Ibid., 92.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Quoted in Ibid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[vii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Louisiana Department of
Education, <i>Annual Financial and Statistical Report</i>, 2002-2003. (Baton
Rouge, LA: Louisiana Department of Education, 2004).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[viii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Louisiana Department of
Education, <i>Annual Financial and Statistical Report</i>, 2009-2010. (Baton
Rouge, LA: Louisiana Department of Education, 2011).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ix]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Louisiana Recovery School
District. “Schools in the East Baton Rouge Parish,” accessed October 26, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.rsdla.net/maps/#parish=East Baton Rouge"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.rsdla.net/maps/#parish=East
Baton Rouge</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[x]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Louisiana Department of
Education, “2011-2012 School Report Cards, Capitol High School, accessed
October 26, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.louisianabelieves.com/data/reportcards/2012/"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.louisianabelieves.com/data/reportcards/2012/</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Recovery School District.
“Crestworth Learning Academy, Profile,” accessed October 26, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.rsdla.net/schools/pdf/crestworth-la.pdf"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.rsdla.net/schools/pdf/crestworth-la.pdf</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Recovery School District.
“Dalton Elementary, Profile,” accessed October 26, 2013,
http://www.rsdla.net/schools/pdf/dalton-es.pdf.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xiii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Zachary Community School
District, “Accountability,”accessed October 12, 2013,
http://www.zacharyschools.org/?page_id=104.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xiv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Danielle Drellinger.
“Schools Excel Before Tests Get Tougher,” <i>Times-Picayune</i>,
October 26, 2013, 1A.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn15">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Rebekah Allen. “New City
Sought for School District,” <i>The
Advocate,</i> June 24, 2013, 1A.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn16">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xvi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Drellinger, “Schools Excel,”
1A.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn17">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref17" name="_edn17" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xvii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Allen, “New City Sought”,
1A.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn18">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref18" name="_edn18" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xviii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Diana Samuels, “Report
Finds Incorporation of New City Could Hurt East Baton Rouge Finances,” <i>Times-Picayune,</i> December 8, 2013, A13.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn19">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref19" name="_edn19" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[xix]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Diana Samuels. “In
Unincorporated Baton Rouge, Residents Chart Path to New City,” <i>Times-Picayune,</i> November 27, 2013, A1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8713290311211812386.post-13127240329618072562014-11-18T12:24:00.001-08:002014-11-18T12:24:32.047-08:00Why Didn't School Desegregation Work? The Case of St. Louis<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc393088127"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc389378895">For the past few
days, I've been looking at the question
of why decades of attempts to desegregate American schools did not lead to true
desegregation and why these efforts, instead, undermined the educational
quality of schools. I've been presenting
the histories of school districts that have been seen as "success
stories," beginning with Little Rock, and then going on to Charlotte and
Milwaukee. Today's case is St. Louis,
Missouri.</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<i>St.
Louis, Missouri</i><i><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZI2-wgb31krhxP_cDptiR-eTI9yyIbbYylVw2zsqat4R20AuG3RfCjmkDQSMDQEL9SbK-C-NYU179uphRV8B1Xk67Yjs1S2dMdoiVP8QegEuj9KHeSZSPfowAktHUqOKQAPOZKtrlzLtm/s1600/st+louis.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZI2-wgb31krhxP_cDptiR-eTI9yyIbbYylVw2zsqat4R20AuG3RfCjmkDQSMDQEL9SbK-C-NYU179uphRV8B1Xk67Yjs1S2dMdoiVP8QegEuj9KHeSZSPfowAktHUqOKQAPOZKtrlzLtm/s1600/st+louis.png" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
St. Louis was one of the few
metropolitan areas where the effort to desegregate schools involved both the
cities and the suburbs. It is an important case to consider because it is, along
with Charlotte, one of the few that have been regularly singled out as one of
the “success stories” of desegregation history. It began in the early 1970s,
when a group of black students were reassigned from their neighborhood schools
to less desirable locations on the grounds that their schools were becoming
over crowded. The families of these students began a grassroots movement and
initiated a lawsuit.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
On December 24, 1975, the case
came before Federal District Court Judge James Meredith, who found that St.
Louis schools were segregated by race. Judge Meredith issued a consent judgment
and decree, directing the school district to take action aimed at
desegregation. Sensitive to the fact that St. Louis was already losing white
citizens to the suburbs, the judge did not order the reassignment of students
or busing. Instead, the schools were to try to integrate their faculties by
setting minimums for increases in minority teachers, and to use magnet schools
to integrate student bodies.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Judge Meredith’s decision was
only an interim measure, because the case against the St. Louis School Board
was still set to go to trial. The plaintiffs enjoyed the support of the federal
government, after the Justice Department intervened on their behalf in 1977. At
the trial in 1979, though, Judge Meredith found in favor of the school board.
He concluded that the board had tried to create legally integrated schools by
allowing all students to attend neighborhood institutions, and that segregation
had occurred as a consequence of demographic shifts in housing. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Dissatisfied, the plaintiffs
appealed. In March 1980, the Eighth Circuit Court reversed the 1979 ruling.
Even though the court agreed that student assignments to schools had been
racially neutral since the 1950s, the court found that the school board had
failed to correct the results of legally segregated schooling incurred during
the first half of the twentieth century. The school board, according to the
court, had an obligation to create a school system without racially
identifiable schools. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
The case went back to Judge
Meredith, who now approved an $18 million plan for desegregation within the
district of St. Louis. A system without racially identifiable schools would be
difficult to create solely within St. Louis, though, because only 23 percent of
the district’s students were white, and they were mainly concentrated in a
single section. Court-appointed desegregation expert Gary Orfield wrote a
report, pointing out that the suburbs would have to be involved in any attempt
at meaningful desegregation.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
In the early 1980s, then, the court began
moving toward an inter-district remedy. A St. Louis - St. Louis County
inter-district transfer plan took effect in 1983, with sixteen St. Louis County
districts participating. The suburban districts had agreed to become part of
this metropolitan solution out of fear that a federal judge would create a
single district, encompassing the entire region. The transporting of students
from city to suburb lasted for the rest of the century. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
This finally came to an end in
1999, when the plaintiffs to the lawsuit, the state of Missouri, the Justice
Department, the sixteen districts, and the St. Louis Board of Education finally
came to an agreement to end the case. At that time, about 12,000 city students
were attending schools in the county, and about 1,400 suburban students were
traveling each day to the city. With the end of the case, inter-district
transfers were to continue under a voluntary desegregation plan run by the
Voluntary Interdistrict Choice Corporation (VICC), which allowed participating
black students to move out of schools in the city to suburban schools.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Many have celebrated St. Louis
and its suburbs as a great success in school desegregation. Speaking before the
House of Representatives in 1999, Representative William Clay announced:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
I want to call the attention of
my colleagues to the remarkable story of desegregation in St. Louis. St. Louis
illustrates the gains that can be made for children even in these times. In St.
Louis, a 1983 settlement of a desegregation case brought by the NAACP resulted
in the largest voluntary metropolitan school desegregation program in the
nation, with 13,000 black students from St. Louis attending school in 16
suburban districts. The program was very successful in increasing the
graduation and college‑going rates of participating youngsters as was a magnet
program in city schools.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn3" name="_ednref3" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
An examination of the results of
over thirty years of busing raises questions about the basis for this celebration.
Economist Joy Kiviat, in 2000, observed that eight out of ten students in the
city of St. Louis were black. Most were attending schools that contained
virtually no whites. Per pupil spending came to $7,564 ($10,450 in 2014
dollars), but the dropout rate was 62% and students scored at the bottom on
standardized tests. One-third of the public school teachers in St. Louis chose
to send their own children to private schools, and private school attendance
was above that of the national average, especially among relatively high income
families.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn4" name="_ednref4" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Data from the Missouri
Department of Secondary and Elementary Education supports Kiviat’s bleak view
of St. Louis schools. According to this information, 82.3% of the students in
St. Louis City public schools were black in 2013. Whites, who had been a little
under 18% in 2000, had gone down to just under 12% of the student population in
2013. On the 2013 Missouri Assessment Program tests, 61.6% of Missouri white
seventh graders and 45.5% of St. Louis City white seventh graders were
proficient or advanced in English language arts, compared to 32.7% of Missouri
black seventh graders and just 22.0% of black seventh graders in St. Louis
City.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
In mathematics, 64.6% of white
seventh graders statewide and 32.1% of white students in St. Louis were
proficient or higher, but only 33.7% of black seventh graders throughout the
state and 21.9% of black seventh graders in St. Louis City were at this level.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn5" name="_ednref5" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> The
small number of white students in the city showed poorer outcomes than whites
elsewhere in the state, and the black students in this minority concentration
district showed worse results than both black and white students throughout
Missouri.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
The suburban districts that have
received students from St. Louis varied in their racial compositions. The
students of Webster Groves, adjoining St. Louis, were between 12 and 22% black
in 1982.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_edn6" name="_ednref6" title=""><sup><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></sup></a> By
2013, Webster Groves was still racially identifiable as a majority white
district, with whites constituting 74% of students and blacks 19% of the
student population. Black students in Webster Groves did better than their St.
Louis counter parts, since 43.2% of black seventh graders were proficient or
advanced in English language arts in 2013and 56.3% of were proficient or better
in mathematics. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Nevertheless, there was still a
huge racial achievement gap in the comparatively high-performing suburban
district of Webster Groves, since 81.2% of same-grade whites were at least
proficient in English language arts and 83.2% were at this level in mathematics.
The Rockwood district, farthest from St. Louis, with a black student population
under 4% in 1982, had become 12% black and 84% white by 2004 and 10% black, 80%
white, and 6% Asian by 2013. In this still majority white district, the race
gap was also great. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Only 34.6% of its black seventh
graders in the Rockwood district were at least proficient in English language
arts in 2013, compared to 76.6% of whites and 89.7% of Asians. In mathematics,
only 30.0% of black seventh graders were at least proficient, while 79.6% of
whites and 95.3% of Asians were proficient or better, according to the Missouri
Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.</div>
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The best that one can say about
the supposed St. Louis success story was that it was not a complete disaster.
Since the whites in the suburbs were never forced to send their own children
into the inner city, and busing from the city to the suburbs never inundated
the latter, white families did not move en masse to private schools or leave
the metropolitan area. The minority of black students who did go to school away
from their own neighborhoods may have benefited from advantageous socioeconomic
settings, although the cursory test results just cited suggest that this
requires more study. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
Desegregation in St. Louis can
be judged a success only in comparison to the utter fiascos of many other
locations, though. The years of inter-district busing and billions of dollars
in transportation and administrative costs did not accomplish any of the stated
goals of the program, though. These years did not do away with racially
identifiable schools or racially identifiable school districts. Neither did
this Herculean effort eliminate the enormous racial achievement gap, in either
the city or the suburbs. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div>
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<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[i]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Where not otherwise noted,
much of the discussion of the St. Louis case is drawn from Amy Stuart Wells and
Robert L. Crain, <i>Stepping Over the Color Line: African American Students in
White Suburban Schools</i> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997). Wells and
Crain provide an excellent case study of St. Louis, although their perspective
and conclusions differ from those presented above While I admire their work, I would take issue
with their ad hominem characterizations of the white suburbanites who disagreed
with inter-district busing as simply historically uninformed “resistors,”
contrasted with the “visionaries” who supported the program.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[ii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Historical Background,
Voluntary Interdistrict Choice Corporation, accessed October 17, 2013, </span><a href="http://www.choicecorp.org/HistBack.htm"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.choicecorp.org/HistBack.htm</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iii]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Hon. William Clay in the
House of Representatives, July 16, 1999.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[iv]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Joy Kiviat, “Could School
Choice Save St. Louis?” <i>School Reform News</i>, December 1. 2000, accessed
December 4, 2004, </span><a href="http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=10832"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=10832</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[v]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Missouri Assessment Program
(MAP), 2010-2013. St Louis City Disaggregate Data by Race/Ethnicity, accessed
October 28, 2013, </span><a href="http://dese.mo.gov/schooldata/four/115115/mapdnone.html"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">http://dese.mo.gov/schooldata/four/115115/mapdnone.html</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8713290311211812386#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><sup><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[vi]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> Wells and Crain, <i>Stepping Over the Color Line</i>, see the
map on p. 254.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Carl Bankstonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01241103671889463341noreply@blogger.com0